Solid Matrix-Supported Supercritical CO₂ Enhances Extraction of γ-Linolenic Acid from the Cyanobacterium Arthrospira (Spirulina) platensis and Bioactivity Evaluation of the Molecule in Zebrafish

Comprehensive Review of the Latest Investigations of the Health-Enhancing Effects of Selected Properties of Arthrospira and Spirulina Microalgae on Skin

Arthospira platensis and Spirulina platensis microalgae are a rich source of pro-health metabolites (% d.m.): proteins (50.0-71.3/46.0-63.0), carbohydrates (16.0-20.0/12.0-17.0), fats (0.9-14.2/6.4-14.3), polyphenolic compounds and phenols (7.3-33.2/7.8-44.5 and 4.2/0.3 mg GAE/g), and flavonoids (1.9/0.2 QUE/g) used in pharmaceutical and cosmetic formulations. This review summarises the research on the chemical profile, therapeutic effects in dermatological problems, application of Arthrospira and Spirulina microalgae, and contraindications to their use. The pro-health properties of these microalgae were analysed based on the relevant literature from 2019 to 2024. The antiviral mechanism of microalgal activity involves the inhibition of viral replication and enhancement of immunity. The anti-acne activity is attributed to alkaloids, alkanes, phenols, alkenes, phycocyanins, phthalates, tannins, carboxylic and phthalic acids, saponins, and steroids. The antibacterial activity generally depends on the components and structure of the bacterial cell wall. Their healing effect results from the inhibition of inflammatory and apoptotic processes, reduction of pro-inflammatory cytokines, stimulation of angiogenesis, and proliferation of fibroblasts and keratinocytes. The photoprotective action is regulated by amino acids, phlorotannins, carotenoids, mycosporins, and polyphenols inhibiting the production of tyrosinase, pro-inflammatory cytokines, and free oxygen radicals in fibroblasts and the stimulation of collagen production. Microalgae are promising molecular ingredients in innovative formulations of parapharmaceuticals and cosmetics used in the prophylaxis and therapy of dermatological problems. This review shows the application of spirulina-based commercial skin-care products as well as the safety and contraindications of spirulina use. Furthermore, the main directions for future studies of the pro-health suitability of microalgae exerting multidirectional effects on human skin are presented.

Leveraging microalgae as a sustainable ingredient for meat analogues

As the world's population and income levels continue to rise, there is a substantial increase in the demand for meat, which poses significant environmental challenges due to large-scale livestock production. This review explores the potential of microalgae as a sustainable protein source for meat analogues. The nutritional composition, functional properties, and environmental advantages of microalgae are analyzed. Additionally, current obstacles to large-scale microalgal food production are addressed, such as strain development, contamination risks, water usage, and downstream processing. The challenges associated with creating meat-like textures and flavors using techniques like extrusion and emulsion formation with microalgae are also examined. Lastly, considerations related to consumer acceptance, marketing, and regulation are summarized. By focusing on improvements in cultivation, structure, sensory attributes, and affordability, microalgae demonstrate promise as a transformative and eco-friendly protein source to enhance the next generation of meat alternatives.

Establishment of Saccharomyces cerevisiae as a cell factory for efficient de novo production of monogalactosyldiacylglycerol

Monogalactosyldiacylglycerol (MGDG), a predominant photosynthetic membrane lipid derived from plants and microalgae, has important applications in feed additives, medicine, and other fields. The low content and various structural stereoselectivity differences of MGDG in plants limited the biological extraction or chemical synthesis of MGDG, resulting in a supply shortage of monogalactosyldiacylglycerol with a growing demand. Herein, we established Saccharomyces cerevisiae as a cell factory for efficient de novo production of monogalactosyldiacylglycerol for the first time. Heterologous production of monogalactosyldiacylglycerol was achieved by overexpression of codon-optimized monogalactosyldiacylglycerol synthase gene MGD1, the key Kennedy pathway genes (i.e. GAT1, ICT1, and PAH1), and multi-copy integration of the MGD1 expression cassette. The final engineered strain (MG-8) was capable of producing monogalactosyldiacylglycerol with titers as high as 16.58 nmol/mg DCW in a shake flask and 103.2 nmol/mg DCW in a 5 L fed-batch fermenter, respectively. This is the first report of heterologous biosynthesis of monogalactosyldiacylglycerol in microorganisms, which will provide a favorable reference for study on heterologous production of monogalactosyldiacylglycerol in yeasts.

Isolation and Characterization of n-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in Enteromorpha prolifera Lipids and Their Preventive Effects on Ulcerative Colitis in C57BL/6J Mice

Enteromorpha prolifera (EP) is a green alga that causes green bloom worldwide. This study aimed to isolate and identify n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) from EP oil obtained via supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) and to explore its preventive effects against dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced ulcerative colitis in C57BL/6J mice. In EP oil, we found the novel n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid C16:4n-3 and two unusual fatty acids C18:4n-3 and C16:3n-3, using GC-MS. The administration of EP oil reduced histopathological of symptoms colitis and the shortening of the colon length. Pro-inflammatory cytokines of IL-6 and TNF-α in serum of EP oil treatment were lower than DSS treatment (by 37.63% and 83.52%), and IL-6 gene expression in the colon was lower in than DSS group by 48.28%, and IL-10 in serum was higher than DSS group by 2.88-fold. Furthermore, the protein expression of p-STAT3 by the EP oil treatment was significantly reduced compared with DSS treatment group by 73.61%. Lipidomics study suggested that phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylethanolamine were positively associated with the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10, while cholesteryl ester and sphingomyelin were negatively related to inflammation cytokines in the EP oil group. The present results indicated that EP oil rich in n-3 PUFA contains a novel fatty acid C16:4n-3, as well as two uncommon fatty acids C18:4n-3 and C16:3n-3. EP oil could prevent DSS-induced ulcerative colitis by regulating the JAK/STAT pathway and lipid metabolism.

Biomanufacturing of γ-linolenic acid-enriched galactosyldiacylglycerols: Challenges in microalgae and potential in oleaginous yeasts

γ-Linolenic acid-enriched galactosyldiacylglycerols (GDGs-GLA), as the natural form of γ-linolenic acid in microalgae, have a range of functional activities, including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-allergic properties. The low abundance of microalgae and the structural stereoselectivity complexity impede microalgae extraction or chemical synthesis, resulting in a lack of supply of GDGs-GLA with a growing demand. At present, there is a growing interest in engineering oleaginous yeasts for mass production of GDGs-GLA based on their ability to utilize a variety of hydrophobic substrates and a high metabolic flux toward fatty acid and lipid (triacylglycerol, TAG) production. Here, we first introduce the GDGs-GLA biosynthetic pathway in microalgae and challenges in the engineering of the native host. Subsequently, we describe in detail the applications of oleaginous yeasts with Yarrowia lipolytica as the representative for GDGs-GLA biosynthesis, including the development of synthetic biology parts, gene editing tools, and metabolic engineering of lipid biosynthesis. Finally, we discuss the development trend of GDGs-GLA biosynthesis in Y. lipolytica.

Microalgal polyunsaturated fatty acids: Hotspots and production techniques

Algae play a crucial role in the earth’s primary productivity by producing not only oxygen but also a variety of high-value nutrients. One such nutrient is polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), which are accumulated in many algae and can be consumed by animals through the food chain and eventually by humans. Omega-3 and omega-6 PUFAs are essential nutrients for human and animal health. However, compared with plants and aquatic sourced PUFA, the production of PUFA-rich oil from microalgae is still in the early stages of exploration. This study has collected recent reports on algae-based PUFA production and analyzed related research hotspots and directions, including algae cultivation, lipids extraction, lipids purification, and PUFA enrichment processes. The entire technological process for the extraction, purification and enrichment of PUFA oils from algae is systemically summarized in this review, providing important guidance and technical reference for scientific research and industrialization of algae-based PUFA production.

Multifarious extraction methodologies for ameliorating lipid recovery from algae

Amongst the current alternatives, algae were proven to be a promising source of biofuel, which is renewable and capable of meeting world demand for transportation fuels. However, a suitable lipid extraction method that efficiently releases the lipids from different algal strains remains a bottleneck. The multifarious pretreatment methods are prevalent in this field of lipid extraction, and therefore, this article has critically reviewed the various lipid extraction methods for ameliorating the lipid yield from algae, irrespective of the strains/species. Physical, mechanical, and chemical are the different types of pretreatment methods. In this review, methodologies such as homogenization, sonication, Soxhlet extraction, microwave treatment, and bead-beating, have been studied in detail and are the most commonly used methods for lipid extraction. Specific advanced/emerging processes such as supercritical CO₂ extraction, ionic liquid, and CO₂ switchable solvent-based algal lipid extraction are yet to be demonstrated at pilot-scale, though promising. The extraction of lipids has to be financially conducive, environmentally sustainable, and industrially applicable for further conversion into biodiesel. Hence, this paper discusses variable pretreatment for lipid extraction and imparts a comparative analysis to elect an efficient, economically sound lipid extraction method for pilot-scale biodiesel production.

Microalgae/cyanobacteria: the potential green future of vitamin B12 production

This review summarizes the available information about potential sources of vitamin B12, especially for people who follow a vegan or vegetarian diet and inhabitants of poor countries in the developing world. Cyanobacteria and microalgae approved for food purposes can play a critical role as promising and innovative sources of this vitamin. This work involves a discussion of whether the form of vitamin B12 extracted from microalgae/cyanobacteria is biologically available to humans, specifically focusing on the genera Arthrospira and Chlorella. It describes analyses of their biomass composition, cultivation requirements, and genetic properties in B12 production. Furthermore, this review discusses the function of cobalamin in microalgae and cyanobacteria themselves and the possibility of modification and cocultivation to increase the content of B12 in their biomass.

Algal Lipids as Modulators of Skin Disease: A Critical Review

The prevalence of inflammatory skin diseases continues to increase with a high incidence in children and adults. These diseases are triggered by environmental factors, such as UV radiation, certain chemical compounds, infectious agents, and in some cases, people with a genetic predisposition. The pathophysiology of inflammatory skin diseases such as psoriasis or atopic dermatitis, but also of skin cancers, is the result of the activation of inflammation-related metabolic pathways and the overproduction of pro-inflammatory cytokines observed in in vitro and in vivo studies. Inflammatory skin diseases are also associated with oxidative stress, overproduction of ROS, and impaired antioxidant defense, which affects the metabolism of immune cells and skin cells (keratinocytes and fibroblasts) in systemic and skin disorders. Lipids from algae have been scarcely applied to modulate skin diseases, but they are well known antioxidant and anti-inflammatory agents. They have shown scavenging activities and can modulate redox homeostasis enzymes. They can also downmodulate key inflammatory signaling pathways and transcription factors such as NF-κB, decreasing the expression of pro-inflammatory mediators. Thus, the exploitation of algae lipids as therapeutical agents for the treatment of inflammatory skin diseases is highly attractive, being critically reviewed in the present work.

High-cell-density cultivation of the flagellate alga Poterioochromonas malhamensis for biomanufacturing the water-soluble β-1,3-glucan with multiple biological activities

The microalga Poterioochromonas malhamensis was found to be capable of accumulating the storage β-1,3-glucan in soluble form under heterotrophic conditions. In this study, the highest biomass yield of 32.8 g L^-1 was achieved by combining the utilization of ammonium chloride as the nitrogen source, simultaneous addition of vitamins B1 and B12 and maintenance of pH at 6.0. Sugar profiling and nuclear magnetic resonance analysis indicated that the P. malhamensis β-1,3-glucan was composed of glucose with the β-(1 → 3) main chain and the β-(1 → 6) side chain. Under the optimal cultivation conditions, the cellular β-1,3-glucan content was up to 55% of the cell dry weight. Moreover, the P. malhamensis β-1,3-glucan could significantly promote the fin regeneration and improve the in vivo antioxidative activity of zebrafish. This study underpins the feasibility of culturing P. malhamensis under heterotrophic conditions for producing the highly water-soluble bioactive β-1,3-glucans for food and pharmaceutical applications.

A Novel Three-Step Extraction Strategy for High-Value Products from Red Algae Porphyridium purpureum

The microalga Porphyridium accumulates high-value compounds such as phycoerythrin, polyunsaturated fatty acids, and polysaccharides, and thus, the extraction of these compounds could significantly expand the value of Porphyridium biomass. In the present study, a novel fractional extraction strategy based on the characteristics of these compounds was established using cold water, 95% ethanol, and hot water. The yield of phycoerythrin, lipids, and polysaccharides was 63.3, 74.3, and 75.2%, respectively. The phycoerythrin exhibited excellent fluorescence characteristics but had low purity. The crude lipid was dark with poor fluidity. Digalactosyldiacylglycerol and sulphoquinovosyldiacylglycerol containing C20:5 and C20:4 were the most abundant glycerolipids, while glucose, xylose, and galactose constituted the intracellular polysaccharides that had covalently bound to proteins (8.01%), uronic acid (4.13%), and sulfate (8.31%). Compared with polysaccharides and crude lipids, crude phycoerythrin showed the best antioxidant activity. Overall, the three-step fractional extraction process was feasible for Porphyridium; however, further purification is necessary for downstream applications.

Microalgal Lipid Extracts Have Potential to Modulate the Inflammatory Response: A Critical Review

Noncommunicable diseases (NCD) and age-associated diseases (AAD) are some of the gravest health concerns worldwide, accounting for up to 70% of total deaths globally. NCD and AAD, such as diabetes, obesity, cardiovascular disease, and cancer, are associated with low-grade chronic inflammation and poor dietary habits. Modulation of the inflammatory status through dietary components is a very appellative approach to fight these diseases and is supported by increasing evidence of natural and dietary components with strong anti-inflammatory activities. The consumption of bioactive lipids has a positive impact on preventing chronic inflammation and consequently NCD and AAD. Thus, new sources of bioactive lipids have been sought out. Microalgae are rich sources of bioactive lipids such as omega-6 and -3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) and polar lipids with associated anti-inflammatory activity. PUFAs are enzymatically and non-enzymatically catalyzed to oxylipins and have a significant role in anti and pro-resolving inflammatory responses. Therefore, a large and rapidly growing body of research has been conducted in vivo and in vitro, investigating the potential anti-inflammatory activities of microalgae lipids. This review sought to summarize and critically analyze recent evidence of the anti-inflammatory potential of microalgae lipids and their possible use to prevent or mitigate chronic inflammation.

Microalgae as Sustainable Bio-Factories of Healthy Lipids: Evaluating Fatty Acid Content and Antioxidant Activity

The demand for sustainable and environmentally friendly food sources and food ingredients is increasing, and microalgae are promoted as a sustainable source of essential and bioactive lipids, with high levels of omega-3 fatty acids (ω-3 FA), comparable to those of fish. However, most FA screening studies on algae are scattered or use different methodologies, preventing a true comparison of its content between microalgae. In this work, we used gas-chromatography mass-spectrometry (GC-MS) to characterize the FA profile of seven different commercial microalgae with biotechnological applications (Chlorella vulgaris, Chlorococcum amblystomatis, Scenedesmus obliquus, Tetraselmis chui, Phaeodactylum tricornutum, Spirulina sp., and Nannochloropsis oceanica). Screening for antioxidant activity was also performed to understand the relationship between FA profile and bioactivity. Microalgae exhibited specific FA profiles with a different composition, namely in the ω-3 FA profile, but with species of the same phylum showing similar tendencies. The different lipid extracts showed similar antioxidant activities, but with a low activity of the extracts of Nannochloropsis oceanica. Overall, this study provides a direct comparison of FA profiles between microalgae species, supporting the role of these species as alternative, sustainable, and healthy sources of essential lipids.

Screening of Marine Bioactive Antimicrobial Compounds for Plant Pathogens

Plant diseases have been threatening food production. Controlling plant pathogens has become an important strategy to ensure food security. Although chemical control is an effective disease control strategy, its application is limited by many problems, such as environmental impact and pathogen resistance. In order to overcome these problems, it is necessary to develop more chemical reagents with new functional mechanisms. Due to their special living environment, marine organisms have produced a variety of bioactive compounds with novel structures, which have the potential to develop new fungicides. In the past two decades, screening marine bioactive compounds to inhibit plant pathogens has been a hot topic. In this review, we summarize the screening methods of marine active substances from plant pathogens, the identification of marine active substances from different sources, and the structure and antibacterial mechanism of marine active natural products. Finally, the application prospect of marine bioactive substances in plant disease control was prospected.

Microalgae Biomolecules: Extraction, Separation and Purification Methods

Several microalgae species have been exploited due to their great biotechnological potential for the production of a range of biomolecules that can be applied in a large variety of industrial sectors. However, the major challenge of biotechnological processes is to make them economically viable, through the production of commercially valuable compounds. Most of these compounds are accumulated inside the cells, requiring efficient technologies for their extraction, recovery and purification. Recent improvements approaching physicochemical treatments (e.g., supercritical fluid extraction, ultrasound-assisted extraction, pulsed electric fields, among others) and processes without solvents are seeking to establish sustainable and scalable technologies to obtain target products from microalgae with high efficiency and purity. This article reviews the currently available approaches reported in literature, highlighting some examples covering recent granted patents for the microalgae’s components extraction, recovery and purification, at small and large scales, in accordance with the worldwide trend of transition to bio-based products.