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Yan M, Man S, Sun B, Ma L, Guo L, Huang L, Gao W. Gut liver brain axis in diseases: the implications for therapeutic interventions. Signal Transduct Target Ther 2023; 8:443. [PMID: 38057297 PMCID: PMC10700720 DOI: 10.1038/s41392-023-01673-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2023] [Revised: 09/10/2023] [Accepted: 09/28/2023] [Indexed: 12/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Gut-liver-brain axis is a three-way highway of information interaction system among the gastrointestinal tract, liver, and nervous systems. In the past few decades, breakthrough progress has been made in the gut liver brain axis, mainly through understanding its formation mechanism and increasing treatment strategies. In this review, we discuss various complex networks including barrier permeability, gut hormones, gut microbial metabolites, vagus nerve, neurotransmitters, immunity, brain toxic metabolites, β-amyloid (Aβ) metabolism, and epigenetic regulation in the gut-liver-brain axis. Some therapies containing antibiotics, probiotics, prebiotics, synbiotics, fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT), polyphenols, low FODMAP diet and nanotechnology application regulate the gut liver brain axis. Besides, some special treatments targeting gut-liver axis include farnesoid X receptor (FXR) agonists, takeda G protein-coupled receptor 5 (TGR5) agonists, glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor antagonists and fibroblast growth factor 19 (FGF19) analogs. Targeting gut-brain axis embraces cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), antidepressants and tryptophan metabolism-related therapies. Targeting liver-brain axis contains epigenetic regulation and Aβ metabolism-related therapies. In the future, a better understanding of gut-liver-brain axis interactions will promote the development of novel preventative strategies and the discovery of precise therapeutic targets in multiple diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengyao Yan
- State Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety, Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, Ministry of Education, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Industry Microbiology, National and Local United Engineering Lab of Metabolic Control Fermentation Technology, China International Science and Technology Cooperation Base of Food Nutrition/Safety and Medicinal Chemistry, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science & Technology, 300457, Tianjin, China
| | - Shuli Man
- State Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety, Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, Ministry of Education, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Industry Microbiology, National and Local United Engineering Lab of Metabolic Control Fermentation Technology, China International Science and Technology Cooperation Base of Food Nutrition/Safety and Medicinal Chemistry, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science & Technology, 300457, Tianjin, China.
| | - Benyue Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety, Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, Ministry of Education, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Industry Microbiology, National and Local United Engineering Lab of Metabolic Control Fermentation Technology, China International Science and Technology Cooperation Base of Food Nutrition/Safety and Medicinal Chemistry, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science & Technology, 300457, Tianjin, China
| | - Long Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety, Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, Ministry of Education, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Industry Microbiology, National and Local United Engineering Lab of Metabolic Control Fermentation Technology, China International Science and Technology Cooperation Base of Food Nutrition/Safety and Medicinal Chemistry, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science & Technology, 300457, Tianjin, China
| | - Lanping Guo
- National Resource Center for Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, 100700, Beijing, China.
| | - Luqi Huang
- National Resource Center for Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, 100700, Beijing, China
| | - Wenyuan Gao
- Tianjin Key Laboratory for Modern Drug Delivery & High-Efficiency, School of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Tianjin University, Weijin Road, 300072, Tianjin, China.
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2
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Festa C, De Marino S, Zampella A, Fiorucci S. Theonella: A Treasure Trove of Structurally Unique and Biologically Active Sterols. Mar Drugs 2023; 21:md21050291. [PMID: 37233485 DOI: 10.3390/md21050291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2023] [Revised: 05/05/2023] [Accepted: 05/06/2023] [Indexed: 05/27/2023] Open
Abstract
The marine environment is considered a vast source in the discovery of structurally unique bioactive secondary metabolites. Among marine invertebrates, the sponge Theonella spp. represents an arsenal of novel compounds ranging from peptides, alkaloids, terpenes, macrolides, and sterols. In this review, we summarize the recent reports on sterols isolated from this amazing sponge, describing their structural features and peculiar biological activities. We also discuss the total syntheses of solomonsterols A and B and the medicinal chemistry modifications on theonellasterol and conicasterol, focusing on the effect of chemical transformations on the biological activity of this class of metabolites. The promising compounds identified from Theonella spp. possess pronounced biological activity on nuclear receptors or cytotoxicity and result in promising candidates for extended preclinical evaluations. The identification of naturally occurring and semisynthetic marine bioactive sterols reaffirms the utility of examining natural product libraries for the discovery of new therapeutical approach to human diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmen Festa
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Naples, Via Domenico Montesano, 49, 80131 Naples, Italy
| | - Simona De Marino
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Naples, Via Domenico Montesano, 49, 80131 Naples, Italy
| | - Angela Zampella
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Naples, Via Domenico Montesano, 49, 80131 Naples, Italy
| | - Stefano Fiorucci
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Perugia, Piazza L. Severi, 1, 06132 Perugia, Italy
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3
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Zhang J, Jia Q, Li Y, He J. The Function of Xenobiotic Receptors in Metabolic Diseases. Drug Metab Dispos 2023; 51:237-248. [PMID: 36414407 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.122.000862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2022] [Revised: 09/01/2022] [Accepted: 11/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Metabolic diseases are a series of metabolic disorders that include obesity, diabetes, insulin resistance, hypertension, and hyperlipidemia. The increased prevalence of metabolic diseases has resulted in higher mortality and mobility rates over the past decades, and this has led to extensive research focusing on the underlying mechanisms. Xenobiotic receptors (XRs) are a series of xenobiotic-sensing nuclear receptors that regulate their downstream target genes expression, thus defending the body from xenobiotic and endotoxin attacks. XR activation is associated with the development of a number of metabolic diseases such as obesity, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases, thus suggesting an important role for XRs in modulating metabolic diseases. However, the regulatory mechanism of XRs in the context of metabolic disorders under different nutrient conditions is complex and remains controversial. This review summarizes the effects of XRs on different metabolic components (cholesterol, lipids, glucose, and bile acids) in different tissues during metabolic diseases. As chronic inflammation plays a critical role in the initiation and progression of metabolic diseases, we also discuss the impact of XRs on inflammation to comprehensively recognize the role of XRs in metabolic diseases. This will provide new ideas for treating metabolic diseases by targeting XRs. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: This review outlines the current understanding of xenobiotic receptors on nutrient metabolism and inflammation during metabolic diseases. This work also highlights the gaps in this field, which can be used to direct the future investigations on metabolic diseases treatment by targeting xenobiotic receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinhang Zhang
- Department of Pharmacy, Institute of Metabolic Diseases and Pharmacotherapy (J.Z., Y.L., J.H.) and Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism (Q.J.), West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Qingyi Jia
- Department of Pharmacy, Institute of Metabolic Diseases and Pharmacotherapy (J.Z., Y.L., J.H.) and Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism (Q.J.), West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Yanping Li
- Department of Pharmacy, Institute of Metabolic Diseases and Pharmacotherapy (J.Z., Y.L., J.H.) and Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism (Q.J.), West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Jinhan He
- Department of Pharmacy, Institute of Metabolic Diseases and Pharmacotherapy (J.Z., Y.L., J.H.) and Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism (Q.J.), West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
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4
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Li Y, Lin W, Chai SC, Wu J, Annu K, Chen T. Design and Optimization of 1 H-1,2,3-Triazole-4-carboxamides as Novel, Potent, and Selective Inverse Agonists and Antagonists of PXR. J Med Chem 2022; 65:16829-16859. [PMID: 36480704 PMCID: PMC9789209 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.2c01640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The pregnane X receptor (PXR) is a key regulator of drug metabolism. Many drugs bind to and activate PXR, causing adverse drug responses. This suggests that PXR inhibitors have therapeutic value, but potent PXR inhibitors have so far been lacking. Herein, we report the structural optimization of a series of 1H-1,2,3-triazole-4-carboxamides compounds that led to the discovery of compound 85 as a selective and the most potent inverse agonist and antagonist of PXR, with low nanomolar IC50 values for binding and cellular activity. Importantly, compound 89, a close analog of 85, is a selective and pure antagonist with low nanomolar IC50 values for binding and cellular activity. This study has provided novel, selective, and most potent PXR inhibitors (a dual inverse agonist/antagonist and a pure antagonist) for use in basic research and future clinical studies and also shed light on how to reduce the binding affinity of a compound to PXR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongtao Li
- Department of Chemical Biology and Therapeutics, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, 38105, USA
| | - Wenwei Lin
- Department of Chemical Biology and Therapeutics, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, 38105, USA
| | - Sergio C. Chai
- Department of Chemical Biology and Therapeutics, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, 38105, USA
| | - Jing Wu
- Department of Chemical Biology and Therapeutics, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, 38105, USA
| | - Kavya Annu
- Department of Chemical Biology and Therapeutics, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, 38105, USA
| | - Taosheng Chen
- Department of Chemical Biology and Therapeutics, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, 38105, USA
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She J, Gu T, Pang X, Liu Y, Tang L, Zhou X. Natural Products Targeting Liver X Receptors or Farnesoid X Receptor. Front Pharmacol 2022; 12:772435. [PMID: 35069197 PMCID: PMC8766425 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.772435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2021] [Accepted: 11/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Nuclear receptors (NRs) are a superfamily of transcription factors induced by ligands and also function as integrators of hormonal and nutritional signals. Among NRs, the liver X receptors (LXRs) and farnesoid X receptor (FXR) have been of significance as targets for the treatment of metabolic syndrome-related diseases. In recent years, natural products targeting LXRs and FXR have received remarkable interests as a valuable source of novel ligands encompassing diverse chemical structures and bioactive properties. This review aims to survey natural products, originating from terrestrial plants and microorganisms, marine organisms, and marine-derived microorganisms, which could influence LXRs and FXR. In the recent two decades (2000-2020), 261 natural products were discovered from natural resources such as LXRs/FXR modulators, 109 agonists and 38 antagonists targeting LXRs, and 72 agonists and 55 antagonists targeting FXR. The docking evaluation of desired natural products targeted LXRs/FXR is finally discussed. This comprehensive overview will provide a reference for future study of novel LXRs and FXR agonists and antagonists to target human diseases, and attract an increasing number of professional scholars majoring in pharmacy and biology with more in-depth discussion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianglian She
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Marine Materia Medica, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, China.,College of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Tanwei Gu
- NMPA Key Laboratory for Research and Evaluation of Drug Metabolism, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New Drug Screening, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiaoyan Pang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Marine Materia Medica, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yonghong Liu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Marine Materia Medica, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, China.,College of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Guangzhou), Guangzhou, China
| | - Lan Tang
- NMPA Key Laboratory for Research and Evaluation of Drug Metabolism, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New Drug Screening, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xuefeng Zhou
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Marine Materia Medica, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, China.,Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Guangzhou), Guangzhou, China
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6
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Rigalli JP, Theile D, Nilles J, Weiss J. Regulation of PXR Function by Coactivator and Corepressor Proteins: Ligand Binding Is Just the Beginning. Cells 2021; 10:cells10113137. [PMID: 34831358 PMCID: PMC8625645 DOI: 10.3390/cells10113137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2021] [Revised: 11/09/2021] [Accepted: 11/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The pregnane X receptor (PXR, NR1I2) is a nuclear receptor which exerts its regulatory function by heterodimerization with the retinoid-X-receptor α (RXRα, NR2B1) and binding to the promoter and enhancer regions of diverse target genes. PXR is involved in the regulation of drug metabolism and excretion, metabolic and immunological functions and cancer pathogenesis. PXR activity is strongly regulated by the association with coactivator and corepressor proteins. Coactivator proteins exhibit histone acetyltransferase or histone methyltransferase activity or associate with proteins having one of these activities, thus promoting chromatin decondensation and activation of the gene expression. On the contrary, corepressor proteins promote histone deacetylation and therefore favor chromatin condensation and repression of the gene expression. Several studies pointed to clear cell- and ligand-specific differences in the activation of PXR. In this article, we will review the critical role of coactivator and corepressor proteins as molecular determinants of the specificity of PXR-mediated effects. As already known for other nuclear receptors, understanding the complex mechanism of PXR activation in each cell type and under particular physiological and pathophysiological conditions may lead to the development of selective modulators with therapeutic potential.
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Zhang J, Pavek P, Kamaraj R, Ren L, Zhang T. Dietary phytochemicals as modulators of human pregnane X receptor. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2021:1-23. [PMID: 34698593 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2021.1995322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
As a promiscuous xenobiotic sensor, pregnane X receptor (PXR) plays a crucial role in drug metabolism. Since dietary phytochemicals exhibit the potential to modulate human PXR, this review aims to summarize the plant-derived PXR modulators, including agonists, partial agonists, and antagonists. The crystal structures of the apo and ligand-bound forms of PXR especially that of PXR complexed with binary mixtures are summarized, in order to provide the structural basis for PXR binding promiscuity and synergistic activation of PXR by composite ligands. Furthermore, this review summarizes the characterized agonists, partial agonists, and antagonists of human PXR from botanical source. Contrary to PXR agonists, there are only a few antagonists obtained from botanical source due to the promiscuity of PXR. It is worth noting that trans-resveratrol and a series of methylindoles have been identified as partial agonists of PXR, both in activating PXR function, but also inhibiting the effect of other PXR agonists. Since antagonizing PXR function plays a crucial role in the prevention of drug-drug interactions and improvement of therapeutic efficacy, further research is necessary to screen more plant-derived PXR antagonists in the future. In summary, this review may contribute to understanding the roles of phytochemicals in food-drug and herb-drug interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Zhang
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Petr Pavek
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Charles University, Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
| | - Rajamanikkam Kamaraj
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Charles University, Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
| | - Li Ren
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Tiehua Zhang
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun, China
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8
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Bilal M, Qindeel M, Nunes LV, Duarte MTS, Ferreira LFR, Soriano RN, Iqbal HMN. Marine-Derived Biologically Active Compounds for the Potential Treatment of Rheumatoid Arthritis. Mar Drugs 2020; 19:10. [PMID: 33383638 PMCID: PMC7823916 DOI: 10.3390/md19010010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2020] [Revised: 12/05/2020] [Accepted: 12/10/2020] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic, systemic autoimmune disease with a prevalence rate of up to 1% and is significantly considered a common worldwide public health concern. Commercially, several traditional formulations are available to treat RA to some extent. However, these synthetic compounds exert toxicity and considerable side effects even at lower therapeutic concentrations. Considering the above-mentioned critiques, research is underway around the world in finding and exploiting potential alternatives. For instance, marine-derived biologically active compounds have gained much interest and are thus being extensively utilized to confront the confines of in practice counterparts, which have become ineffective for 21st-century medical settings. The utilization of naturally available bioactive compounds and their derivatives can minimize these synthetic compounds' problems to treat RA. Several marine-derived compounds exhibit anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties and can be effectively used for therapeutic purposes against RA. The results of several studies ensured that the extraction of biologically active compounds from marine sources could provide a new and safe source for drug development against RA. Finally, current challenges, gaps, and future perspectives have been included in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Bilal
- School of Life Science and Food Engineering, Huaiyin Institute of Technology, Huaian 223003, China
| | - Maimoona Qindeel
- Department of Pharmacy, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad 45320, Pakistan;
| | - Leonardo Vieira Nunes
- Department of Medicine, Federal University of Juiz de Fora, Juiz de Fora-MG 36036-900, Brazil;
| | | | - Luiz Fernando Romanholo Ferreira
- Graduate Program in Process Engineering, Tiradentes University (UNIT), Av. Murilo Dantas, 300, Farolândia, Aracaju-Sergipe 49032-490, Brazil;
- Institute of Technology and Research (ITP), Tiradentes University (UNIT), Av. Murilo Dantas, 300, Farolândia, Aracaju-Sergipe 49032-490, Brazil
| | - Renato Nery Soriano
- Division of Physiology and Biophysics, Department of Basic Life Sciences, Federal University of Juiz de Fora, Governador Valadares-MG 35010-180, Brazil;
| | - Hafiz M. N. Iqbal
- School of Engineering and Sciences, Tecnologico de Monterrey, Monterrey 64849, Mexico
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Matulja D, Kolympadi Markovic M, Ambrožić G, Laclef S, Pavelić SK, Marković D. Secondary Metabolites from Gorgonian Corals of the Genus Eunicella: Structural Characterizations, Biological Activities, and Synthetic Approaches. Molecules 2019; 25:molecules25010129. [PMID: 31905691 PMCID: PMC6983218 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25010129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2019] [Revised: 12/24/2019] [Accepted: 12/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Gorgonian corals, which belong to the genus Eunicella, are known as natural sources of diverse compounds with unique structural characteristics and interesting bioactivities both in vitro and in vivo. This review is focused primarily on the secondary metabolites isolated from various Eunicella species. The chemical structures of 64 compounds were divided into three main groups and comprehensively presented: a) terpenoids, b) sterols, and c) alkaloids and nucleosides. The observed biological activities of depicted metabolites with an impact on cytotoxic, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial activities were reviewed. The most promising biological activities of certain metabolites point to potential candidates for further development in pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and other industries, and are highlighted. Total synthesis or the synthetic approaches towards the desired skeletons or natural products are also summarized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dario Matulja
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Rijeka, Radmile Matejčić 2, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia;
| | - Maria Kolympadi Markovic
- Department of Physics and Centre for Micro- and Nanosciences and Technologies, University of Rijeka, Radmile Matejčić 2, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia; (M.K.M.); (G.A.)
| | - Gabriela Ambrožić
- Department of Physics and Centre for Micro- and Nanosciences and Technologies, University of Rijeka, Radmile Matejčić 2, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia; (M.K.M.); (G.A.)
| | - Sylvain Laclef
- Laboratoire de Glycochimie, des Antimicrobiens et des Agroressources (LG2A) UMR CNRS 7378—Institut de Chimie de Picardie FR 3085, Université de Picardie Jules Verne, 33 rue Saint Leu, FR-80039 Amiens CEDEX, France;
| | - Sandra Kraljević Pavelić
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Rijeka, Radmile Matejčić 2, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia;
- Correspondence: (S.K.P.); (D.M.); Tel.: +385-51-584-550 (S.K.P.); +385-51-584-816 (D.M.)
| | - Dean Marković
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Rijeka, Radmile Matejčić 2, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia;
- Correspondence: (S.K.P.); (D.M.); Tel.: +385-51-584-550 (S.K.P.); +385-51-584-816 (D.M.)
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