1
|
Gill S, Kumara VMR. Detecting Neurodevelopmental Toxicity of Domoic Acid and Ochratoxin A Using Rat Fetal Neural Stem Cells. Mar Drugs 2019; 17:md17100566. [PMID: 31590222 PMCID: PMC6835907 DOI: 10.3390/md17100566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2019] [Revised: 10/01/2019] [Accepted: 10/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Currently, animal experiments in rodents are the gold standard for developmental neurotoxicity (DNT) investigations; however, testing guidelines for these experiments are insufficient in terms of animal use, time, and costs. Thus, alternative reliable approaches are needed for predicting DNT. We chose rat neural stem cells (rNSC) as a model system, and used a well-known neurotoxin, domoic acid (DA), as a model test chemical to validate the assay. This assay was used to investigate the potential neurotoxic effects of Ochratoxin A (OTA), of which the main target organ is the kidney. However, limited information is available regarding its neurotoxic effects. The effects of DA and OTA on the cytotoxicity and on the degree of differentiation of rat rNSC into astrocytes, neurons, and oligodendrocytes were monitored using cell-specific immunofluorescence staining for undifferentiated rNSC (nestin), neurospheres (nestin and A2B5), neurons (MAP2 clone M13, MAP2 clone AP18, and Doublecortin), astrocytes (GFAP), and oligodendrocytes (A2B5 and mGalc). In the absence of any chemical exposure, approximately 46% of rNSC differentiated into astrocytes and neurons, while 40% of the rNSC differentiated into oligodendrocytes. Both non-cytotoxic and cytotoxic concentrations of DA and OTA reduced the differentiation of rNSC into astrocytes, neurons, and oligodendrocytes. Furthermore, a non-cytotoxic nanomolar (0.05 µM) concentration of DA and 0.2 µM of OTA reduced the percentage differentiation of rNSC into astrocytes and neurons. Morphometric analysis showed that the highest concentration (10 μM) of DA reduced axonal length. These indicate that low, non-cytotoxic concentrations of DA and OTA can interfere with the differentiation of rNSC.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S Gill
- Regulatory Toxicology Research Division, Health Products and Food Branch, Tunney's Pasture, Health Canada, 251 Sir Frederick Banting Driveway, Ottawa, ON K1A 0K9, Canada.
| | - V M Ruvin Kumara
- Regulatory Toxicology Research Division, Health Products and Food Branch, Tunney's Pasture, Health Canada, 251 Sir Frederick Banting Driveway, Ottawa, ON K1A 0K9, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Ruszkiewicz JA, Tinkov AA, Skalny AV, Siokas V, Dardiotis E, Tsatsakis A, Bowman AB, da Rocha JBT, Aschner M. Brain diseases in changing climate. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2019; 177:108637. [PMID: 31416010 PMCID: PMC6717544 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2019.108637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2019] [Revised: 08/06/2019] [Accepted: 08/07/2019] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Climate change is one of the biggest and most urgent challenges for the 21st century. Rising average temperatures and ocean levels, altered precipitation patterns and increased occurrence of extreme weather events affect not only the global landscape and ecosystem, but also human health. Multiple environmental factors influence the onset and severity of human diseases and changing climate may have a great impact on these factors. Climate shifts disrupt the quantity and quality of water, increase environmental pollution, change the distribution of pathogens and severely impacts food production - all of which are important regarding public health. This paper focuses on brain health and provides an overview of climate change impacts on risk factors specific to brain diseases and disorders. We also discuss emerging hazards in brain health due to mitigation and adaptation strategies in response to climate changes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joanna A Ruszkiewicz
- Molecular Toxicology Group, Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Alexey A Tinkov
- Yaroslavl State University, Yaroslavl, Russia; IM Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, Russia; Institute of Cellular and Intracellular Symbiosis, Russian Academy of Sciences, Orenburg, Russia
| | - Anatoly V Skalny
- Yaroslavl State University, Yaroslavl, Russia; IM Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, Russia; Trace Element Institute for UNESCO, Lyon, France
| | - Vasileios Siokas
- Department of Neurology, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, University of Thessaly, University Hospital of Larissa, Larissa, Greece
| | - Efthimios Dardiotis
- Department of Neurology, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, University of Thessaly, University Hospital of Larissa, Larissa, Greece
| | - Aristidis Tsatsakis
- Laboratory of Toxicology, School of Medicine, University of Crete, 71003, Heraklion, Greece
| | - Aaron B Bowman
- School of Health Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
| | - João B T da Rocha
- Department of Biochemistry, Federal University of Santa Maria, Santa Maria, Brazil
| | - Michael Aschner
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, United States.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Lefebvre KA, Hendrix A, Halaska B, Duignan P, Shum S, Isoherranen N, Marcinek DJ, Gulland FMD. Domoic acid in California sea lion fetal fluids indicates continuous exposure to a neuroteratogen poses risks to mammals. HARMFUL ALGAE 2018; 79:53-57. [PMID: 30420016 PMCID: PMC7297052 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2018.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2018] [Revised: 06/04/2018] [Accepted: 06/04/2018] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Domoic acid (DA) is a neuroexcitotoxic amino acid that is naturally produced by some species of marine diatoms during harmful algal blooms (HABs). The toxin is transferred through the food web from plantivorous fish and shellfish to marine mammals resulting in significant morbidity and mortality. Due to the timing and location of DA producing HABs, it is well documented that pregnant female California sea lions (CSL) are regularly exposed to DA through their diet thereby posing exposure risks to a neuroteratogen in developing fetuses. In the present study, fluids from 36 fetuses sampled from naturally exposed pregnant CSLs were examined for DA. Domoic acid was detected in 79% of amniotic fluid (n = 24), 67% of allantoic fluid (n = 9), 75% of urine (n = 4), 41% of meconium (n = 17) and 29% of stomach content (n = 21) samples opportunistically collected from CSL fetuses. The distribution of DA in fetal samples indicates an increased prenatal exposure risk due to recirculation of DA in fetal fluids and continuous exposure to the developing brain.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kathi A Lefebvre
- Environmental and Fisheries Science Division, Northwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2725 Montlake Blvd. East, Seattle, WA 98112, United States.
| | - Alicia Hendrix
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, United States
| | - Barbie Halaska
- The Marine Mammal Center, 2000 Bunker Road, Sausalito, CA 94965, United States
| | - Padraig Duignan
- The Marine Mammal Center, 2000 Bunker Road, Sausalito, CA 94965, United States
| | - Sara Shum
- Department of Pharmaceutics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, United States
| | - Nina Isoherranen
- Department of Pharmaceutics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, United States
| | - David J Marcinek
- Department of Radiology, Pathology, and Bioengineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, United States
| | - Frances M D Gulland
- The Marine Mammal Center, 2000 Bunker Road, Sausalito, CA 94965, United States
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Brunson JK, McKinnie SMK, Chekan JR, McCrow JP, Miles ZD, Bertrand EM, Bielinski VA, Luhavaya H, Oborník M, Smith GJ, Hutchins DA, Allen AE, Moore BS. Biosynthesis of the neurotoxin domoic acid in a bloom-forming diatom. Science 2018; 361:1356-1358. [PMID: 30262498 PMCID: PMC6276376 DOI: 10.1126/science.aau0382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2018] [Accepted: 08/15/2018] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Oceanic harmful algal blooms of Pseudo-nitzschia diatoms produce the potent mammalian neurotoxin domoic acid (DA). Despite decades of research, the molecular basis for its biosynthesis is not known. By using growth conditions known to induce DA production in Pseudo-nitzschia multiseries, we implemented transcriptome sequencing in order to identify DA biosynthesis genes that colocalize in a genomic four-gene cluster. We biochemically investigated the recombinant DA biosynthetic enzymes and linked their mechanisms to the construction of DA's diagnostic pyrrolidine skeleton, establishing a model for DA biosynthesis. Knowledge of the genetic basis for toxin production provides an orthogonal approach to bloom monitoring and enables study of environmental factors that drive oceanic DA production.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- John K Brunson
- Center for Marine Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
- Microbial and Environmental Genomics Group, J. Craig Venter Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Shaun M K McKinnie
- Center for Marine Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Jonathan R Chekan
- Center for Marine Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - John P McCrow
- Microbial and Environmental Genomics Group, J. Craig Venter Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Zachary D Miles
- Center for Marine Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Erin M Bertrand
- Microbial and Environmental Genomics Group, J. Craig Venter Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
- Department of Biology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 4R2, Canada
| | - Vincent A Bielinski
- Synthetic Biology and Bioenergy Group, J. Craig Venter Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Hanna Luhavaya
- Center for Marine Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Miroslav Oborník
- Institute of Parasitology, University of South Bohemia and Biology Center CAS, Branišovská 31, 370 05 České Budějovice, Czech Republic
| | - G Jason Smith
- Moss Landing Marine Laboratories, 8272 Moss Landing Road, Moss Landing, CA 95039, USA
| | - David A Hutchins
- Marine and Environmental Biology, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA
| | - Andrew E Allen
- Microbial and Environmental Genomics Group, J. Craig Venter Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.
- Integrative Oceanography Division, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Bradley S Moore
- Center for Marine Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA.
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Demars F, Clark K, Wyeth MS, Abrams E, Buckmaster PS. A single subconvulsant dose of domoic acid at mid-gestation does not cause temporal lobe epilepsy in mice. Neurotoxicology 2018; 66:128-137. [PMID: 29625197 PMCID: PMC5940543 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2018.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2018] [Revised: 03/28/2018] [Accepted: 04/02/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Harmful blooms of domoic acid (DA)-producing algae are a problem in oceans worldwide. DA is a potent glutamate receptor agonist that can cause status epilepticus and in survivors, temporal lobe epilepsy. In mice, one-time low-dose in utero exposure to DA was reported to cause hippocampal damage and epileptiform activity, leading to the hypothesis that unrecognized exposure to DA from contaminated seafood in pregnant women can damage the fetal hippocampus and initiate temporal lobe epileptogenesis. However, development of epilepsy (i.e., spontaneous recurrent seizures) has not been tested. In the present study, long-term seizure monitoring and histology was used to test for temporal lobe epilepsy following prenatal exposure to DA. In Experiment One, the previous study's in utero DA treatment protocol was replicated, including use of the CD-1 mouse strain. Afterward, mice were video-monitored for convulsive seizures from 2 to 6 months old. None of the CD-1 mice treated in utero with vehicle or DA was observed to experience spontaneous convulsive seizures. After seizure monitoring, mice were evaluated for pathological evidence of temporal lobe epilepsy. None of the mice treated in utero with DA displayed the hilar neuron loss that occurs in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy and in the mouse pilocarpine model of temporal lobe epilepsy. In Experiment Two, a higher dose of DA was administered to pregnant FVB mice. FVB mice were tested as a potentially more sensitive strain, because they have a lower seizure threshold, and some females spontaneously develop epilepsy. Female offspring were monitored with continuous video and telemetric bilateral hippocampal local field potential recording at 1-11 months old. A similar proportion of vehicle- and DA-treated female FVB mice spontaneously developed epilepsy, beginning in the fourth month of life. Average seizure frequency and duration were similar in both groups. Seizure frequency was lower than that of positive-control pilocarpine-treated mice, but seizure duration was similar. None of the mice treated in utero with vehicle or DA displayed hilar neuron loss or intense mossy fiber sprouting, a form of aberrant synaptic reorganization that develops in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy and in pilocarpine-treated mice. FVB mice that developed epilepsy (vehicle- and DA-treated) displayed mild mossy fiber sprouting. Results of this study suggest that a single subconvulsive dose of DA at mid-gestation does not cause temporal lobe epilepsy in mice.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fanny Demars
- Department of Comparative Medicine, School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States; VetAgro Sup, School of Veterinary Medicine, Lyon, France; Paris Descartes University, Paris, France
| | - Kristen Clark
- Department of Comparative Medicine, School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States; College of Veterinary Medicine, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, United States
| | - Megan S Wyeth
- Department of Comparative Medicine, School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Emily Abrams
- Department of Comparative Medicine, School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Paul S Buckmaster
- Department of Comparative Medicine, School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States; Department of Neurology & Neurological Sciences, School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Banuet-Martínez M, Espinosa-de Aquino W, Elorriaga-Verplancken FR, Flores-Morán A, García OP, Camacho M, Acevedo-Whitehouse K. Climatic anomaly affects the immune competence of California sea lions. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0179359. [PMID: 28658317 PMCID: PMC5489150 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0179359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2017] [Accepted: 05/30/2017] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
The past decades have been characterized by a growing number of climatic anomalies. As these anomalies tend to occur suddenly and unexpectedly, it is often difficult to procure empirical evidence of their effects on natural populations. We analysed how the recent sea surface temperature (SST) anomaly in the northeastern Pacific Ocean affects body condition, nutritional status, and immune competence of California sea lion pups. We found that pup body condition and blood glucose levels of the pups were lower during high SST events, although other biomarkers of malnutrition remained unchanged, suggesting that pups were experiencing early stages of starvation. Glucose-dependent immune responses were affected by the SST anomaly; specifically, pups born during high SST events had lower serum concentrations of IgG and IgA, and were unable to respond to an immune challenge. This means that not only were pups that were born during the SST anomaly less able to synthesize protective antibodies; they were also limited in their ability to respond rapidly to nonspecific immune challenges. Our study provides empirical evidence that atypical climatic conditions can limit energetic reserves and compromise physiological responses that are essential for the survival of a marine top predator.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marina Banuet-Martínez
- Unit for Basic and Applied Microbiology, School of Natural Sciences, Autonomous University of Queretaro, Queretaro, Mexico
| | - Wendy Espinosa-de Aquino
- Unit for Basic and Applied Microbiology, School of Natural Sciences, Autonomous University of Queretaro, Queretaro, Mexico
| | - Fernando R. Elorriaga-Verplancken
- Department of Fisheries and Marine Biology, Centro Interdisciplinario de Ciencias Marinas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional (CICIMAR-IPN), La Paz, Mexico
| | - Adriana Flores-Morán
- Unit for Basic and Applied Microbiology, School of Natural Sciences, Autonomous University of Queretaro, Queretaro, Mexico
| | - Olga P. García
- Department of Human Nutrition, School of Natural Sciences, Autonomous University of Queretaro, Queretaro, Mexico
| | - Mariela Camacho
- Department of Human Nutrition, School of Natural Sciences, Autonomous University of Queretaro, Queretaro, Mexico
| | - Karina Acevedo-Whitehouse
- Unit for Basic and Applied Microbiology, School of Natural Sciences, Autonomous University of Queretaro, Queretaro, Mexico
- The Marine Mammal Center, Sausalito, California, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Mills BD, Pearce HL, Khan O, Jarrett BR, Fair DA, Lahvis GP. Prenatal domoic acid exposure disrupts mouse pro-social behavior and functional connectivity MRI. Behav Brain Res 2016; 308:14-23. [PMID: 27050322 PMCID: PMC4918767 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2016.03.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2015] [Revised: 03/18/2016] [Accepted: 03/22/2016] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Domoic acid (DA) is a toxin produced by marine algae and known primarily for its role in isolated outbreaks of Amnestic Shellfish Poisoning and for the damage it inflicts on marine mammals, particularly California sea lions. Lethal effects of DA are often preceded by seizures and coma. Exposure to DA during development can result in subtle and highly persistent effects on brain development and include behavioral changes that resemble diagnostic features of schizophrenia and anomalies in social behavior we believe are relevant to autism spectrum disorder (ASD). To more fully examine this hypothesis, we chose to examine adolescent mice exposed in utero to DA for endpoints relevant to ASD, specifically changes in social behavior and network structure, the latter measured by resting state functional connectivity (rs-fcMRI). We found that male offspring exposed in utero to DA expressed reproducible declines in social interaction and atypical patterns of functional connectivity in the anterior cingulate, a region of the default mode network that is critical for social functioning. We also found disruptions in global topology in regions involved in the processing of reward, social, and sensory experiences. Finally, we found that DA exposed males expressed a pattern of local over-connectivity. These anomalies in brain connectivity bear resemblance to connectivity patterns in ASD and help validate DA-exposed mice as a model of this mental disability.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Brian D Mills
- Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97239, United States
| | - Hadley L Pearce
- Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97239, United States
| | - Omar Khan
- Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97239, United States
| | - Ben R Jarrett
- Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97239, United States
| | - Damien A Fair
- Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97239, United States; Department of Psychiatry, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97239, United States; Advanced Imaging Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97239, United States
| | - Garet P Lahvis
- Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97239, United States.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Silbergeld EK. Drinking Water and the Developing Brain. CEREBRUM : THE DANA FORUM ON BRAIN SCIENCE 2016; 2016:cer-09-16. [PMID: 28058090 PMCID: PMC5198753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
While the problem of unsafe tap water in Flint, Michigan fueled outrage and better awareness in regard to the hazards of lead in tap water, the problem has existed in city after city for years in the US and in other countries. Our author, a winner of the MacArthur Foundation "genius" grant for her work in identifying preventable causes of human disease related to environmental exposures, points out that problems extend well beyond lead. Many potentially harmful contaminants have yet to be evaluated, much less regulated. Her article examines a number of neurotoxins and related issues as they pertain to brain development.
Collapse
|
9
|
Lefebvre KA, Quakenbush L, Frame E, Huntington KB, Sheffield G, Stimmelmayr R, Bryan A, Kendrick P, Ziel H, Goldstein T, Snyder JA, Gelatt T, Gulland F, Dickerson B, Gill V. Prevalence of algal toxins in Alaskan marine mammals foraging in a changing arctic and subarctic environment. HARMFUL ALGAE 2016; 55:13-24. [PMID: 28073526 PMCID: PMC8276754 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2016.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2015] [Revised: 01/14/2016] [Accepted: 01/19/2016] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Current climate trends resulting in rapid declines in sea ice and increasing water temperatures are likely to expand the northern geographic range and duration of favorable conditions for harmful algal blooms (HABs), making algal toxins a growing concern in Alaskan marine food webs. Two of the most common HAB toxins along the west coast of North America are the neurotoxins domoic acid (DA) and saxitoxin (STX). Over the last 20 years, DA toxicosis has caused significant illness and mortality in marine mammals along the west coast of the USA, but has not been reported to impact marine mammals foraging in Alaskan waters. Saxitoxin, the most potent of the paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins, has been well-documented in shellfish in the Aleutians and Gulf of Alaska for decades and associated with human illnesses and deaths due to consumption of toxic clams. There is little information regarding exposure of Alaskan marine mammals. Here, the spatial patterns and prevalence of DA and STX exposure in Alaskan marine mammals are documented in order to assess health risks to northern populations including those species that are important to the nutritional, cultural, and economic well-being of Alaskan coastal communities. In this study, 905 marine mammals from 13 species were sampled including; humpback whales, bowhead whales, beluga whales, harbor porpoises, northern fur seals, Steller sea lions, harbor seals, ringed seals, bearded seals, spotted seals, ribbon seals, Pacific walruses, and northern sea otters. Domoic acid was detected in all 13 species examined and had the greatest prevalence in bowhead whales (68%) and harbor seals (67%). Saxitoxin was detected in 10 of the 13 species, with the highest prevalence in humpback whales (50%) and bowhead whales (32%). Pacific walruses contained the highest concentrations of both STX and DA, with DA concentrations similar to those detected in California sea lions exhibiting clinical signs of DA toxicosis (seizures) off the coast of Central California, USA. Forty-six individual marine mammals contained detectable concentrations of both toxins emphasizing the potential for combined exposure risks. Additionally, fetuses from a beluga whale, a harbor porpoise and a Steller sea lion contained detectable concentrations of DA documenting maternal toxin transfer in these species. These results provide evidence that HAB toxins are present throughout Alaska waters at levels high enough to be detected in marine mammals and have the potential to impact marine mammal health in the Arctic marine environment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kathi A Lefebvre
- Northwest Fisheries Science Center, NOAA Fisheries, Seattle, WA, USA.
| | - Lori Quakenbush
- Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Arctic Marine Mammal Program, 1300 College Road, Fairbanks, AK, USA
| | - Elizabeth Frame
- Northwest Fisheries Science Center, NOAA Fisheries, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Kathy Burek Huntington
- Alaska Veterinary Pathology Services (AVPS), 23834 The Clearing Drive, Eagle River, AK, USA
| | - Gay Sheffield
- University of Alaska Fairbanks, Alaska Sea Grant, Marine Advisory Program, PO Box 400, Nome, AK, USA
| | - Raphaela Stimmelmayr
- North Slope Borough Department of Wildlife Management, PO Box 69, Barrow, AK, USA
| | - Anna Bryan
- Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Arctic Marine Mammal Program, 1300 College Road, Fairbanks, AK, USA
| | - Preston Kendrick
- Northwest Fisheries Science Center, NOAA Fisheries, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Heather Ziel
- Marine Mammal Laboratory, Alaska Fisheries Science Center, NOAA, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Tracey Goldstein
- One Health Institute, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Jonathan A Snyder
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Marine Mammals Management, 1011 East Tudor Rd., Anchorage, AK, USA
| | - Tom Gelatt
- Marine Mammal Laboratory, Alaska Fisheries Science Center, NOAA, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Frances Gulland
- The Marine Mammal Center, 2000 Bunker Road, Fort Cronkhite, Sausalito, CA, USA
| | - Bobette Dickerson
- Marine Mammal Laboratory, Alaska Fisheries Science Center, NOAA, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Verena Gill
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Marine Mammals Management, 1011 East Tudor Rd., Anchorage, AK, USA
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Buckmaster PS, Wen X, Toyoda I, Gulland FMD, Van Bonn W. Hippocampal neuropathology of domoic acid-induced epilepsy in California sea lions (Zalophus californianus). J Comp Neurol 2014; 522:1691-706. [PMID: 24638960 DOI: 10.1002/cne.23509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2013] [Revised: 11/21/2013] [Accepted: 11/21/2013] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
California sea lions (Zalophus californianus) are abundant human-sized carnivores with large gyrencephalic brains. They develop epilepsy after experiencing status epilepticus when naturally exposed to domoic acid. We tested whether sea lions previously exposed to DA (chronic DA sea lions) display hippocampal neuropathology similar to that of human patients with temporal lobe epilepsy. Hippocampi were obtained from control and chronic DA sea lions. Stereology was used to estimate numbers of Nissl-stained neurons per hippocampus in the granule cell layer, hilus, and pyramidal cell layer of CA3, CA2, and CA1 subfields. Adjacent sections were processed for somatostatin immunoreactivity or Timm-stained, and the extent of mossy fiber sprouting was measured stereologically. Chronic DA sea lions displayed hippocampal neuron loss in patterns and extents similar but not identical to those reported previously for human patients with temporal lobe epilepsy. Similar to human patients, hippocampal sclerosis in sea lions was unilateral in 79% of cases, mossy fiber sprouting was a common neuropathological abnormality, and somatostatin-immunoreactive axons were exuberant in the dentate gyrus despite loss of immunopositive hilar neurons. Thus, hippocampal neuropathology of chronic DA sea lions is similar to that of human patients with temporal lobe epilepsy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Paul S Buckmaster
- Department of Comparative Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, California, 94305; Department of Neurology & Neurological Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, California, 94305
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
11
|
Domoic acid epileptic disease. Mar Drugs 2014; 12:1185-207. [PMID: 24663110 PMCID: PMC3967204 DOI: 10.3390/md12031185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2013] [Revised: 01/08/2014] [Accepted: 02/08/2014] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Domoic acid epileptic disease is characterized by spontaneous recurrent seizures weeks to months after domoic acid exposure. The potential for this disease was first recognized in a human case study of temporal lobe epilepsy after the 1987 amnesic shellfish-poisoning event in Quebec, and was characterized as a chronic epileptic syndrome in California sea lions through investigation of a series of domoic acid poisoning cases between 1998 and 2006. The sea lion study provided a breadth of insight into clinical presentations, unusual behaviors, brain pathology, and epidemiology. A rat model that replicates key observations of the chronic epileptic syndrome in sea lions has been applied to identify the progression of the epileptic disease state, its relationship to behavioral manifestations, and to define the neural systems involved in these behavioral disorders. Here, we present the concept of domoic acid epileptic disease as a delayed manifestation of domoic acid poisoning and review the state of knowledge for this disease state in affected humans and sea lions. We discuss causative mechanisms and neural underpinnings of disease maturation revealed by the rat model to present the concept for olfactory origin of an epileptic disease; triggered in dendodendritic synapases of the olfactory bulb and maturing in the olfactory cortex. We conclude with updated information on populations at risk, medical diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis.
Collapse
|
12
|
Giménez Papiol G, Casanova A, Fernández-Tejedor M, de la Iglesia P, Diogène J. Management of domoic acid monitoring in shellfish from the Catalan coast. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2013; 185:6653-6666. [PMID: 23275095 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-012-3054-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2012] [Accepted: 12/17/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Monitoring of amnesic shellfish poisoning (ASP) toxins in shellfish from the Catalan coast started in 2001. No ASP toxins were detected in any of the analyses performed before 2008. On 22 January 2008, domoic acid (DA) was detected in Donax trunculus (0.5 mg kg(-1)) and confirmed by rapid resolution liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (0.6 mg kg(-1)). A total of 974 shellfish samples were analyzed from January 2008 to December 2011, covering all the Catalan production areas and the most important marketed species. DA was detected in 23.8 % of the samples and was recorded every month in all areas and all species, except Ostrea edulis, although the percentage of samples with DA and DA content varied widely among samples. DA exceeded the regulatory level of 20 mg kg(-1) twice: in Callista chione sampled on February 2008 and in D. trunculus sampled on April 2010. DA content in Bolinus brandaris appeared constant and close to 4.5 mg kg(-1) for months in 2009. Mytilus galloprovincialis, Crassostrea gigas, and Ruditapes sp. presented very low concentrations of DA in the Ebro Delta bays, despite 113 alert situations according to Pseudo-nitzschia spp. abundances and the high number of shellfish samples analyzed. The origin of DA in Catalan shellfish remains unknown.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gemma Giménez Papiol
- Institut de Recerca i Tecnologia Agroalimentaries (IRTA), Ctra. Poble Nou Km. 5.5, 43540, Sant Carles de la Rapita, Tarragona, Spain.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
13
|
Costa LG, Giordano G, Faustman EM. Domoic acid as a developmental neurotoxin. Neurotoxicology 2010; 31:409-23. [PMID: 20471419 PMCID: PMC2934754 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2010.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2010] [Revised: 05/04/2010] [Accepted: 05/05/2010] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Domoic acid (DomA) is an excitatory amino acid which can accumulate in shellfish and finfish under certain environmental conditions. DomA is a potent neurotoxin. In humans and in non-human primates, oral exposure to a few mg/kg DomA elicits gastrointestinal effects, while slightly higher doses cause neurological symptoms, seizures, memory impairment, and limbic system degeneration. In rodents, which appear to be less sensitive than humans or non-human primates, oral doses cause behavioral abnormalities (e.g. hindlimb scratching), followed by seizures and hippocampal degeneration. Similar effects are also seen in other species (from sea lions to zebrafish), indicating that DomA exerts similar neurotoxic effects across species. The neurotoxicity of DomA is ascribed to its ability to interact and activate the AMPA/KA receptors, a subfamily of receptors for the neuroexcitatory neurotransmitter glutamate. Studies exploring the neurotoxic effects of DomA on the developing nervous system indicate that DomA elicits similar behavioral, biochemical and morphological effects as in adult animals. However, most importantly, developmental neurotoxicity is seen at doses of DomA that are one to two orders of magnitude lower than those exerting neurotoxicity in adults. This difference may be due to toxicokinetic and/or toxicodynamic differences. Estimated safe doses may be exceeded in adults by high consumption of shellfish contaminated with DomA at the current limit of 20 microg/g. Given the potential higher susceptibility of the young to DomA neurotoxicity, additional studies investigating exposure to, and effects of this neurotoxin during brain development are warranted.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lucio G Costa
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98105, USA.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
14
|
Ramsdell JS, Stafstrom CE. Rat kainic acid model provides unexpected insight into an emerging epilepsy syndrome in sea lions. Epilepsy Curr 2010; 9:142-3. [PMID: 19826507 DOI: 10.1111/j.1535-7511.2009.01321.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Novel Symptomatology and Changing Epidemiology of Domoic Acid Toxicosis in California Sea Lions ( Zalophus californianus): An Increasing Risk to Marine Mammal Health. Goldstein T, Mazet JAK, Zabka TS, Langlois G, Colegrove KM, Silver M, Bargu S, Van Dolah F, Leighfield T, Conrad PA, Barakos J, Williams DC, Dennison S, Haulena M, Gulland FMD. Proc Biol Sci 2008;275(1632):267–276. Harmful algal blooms are increasing worldwide, including those of Pseudo-nitzschia spp. producing domoic acid off the California coast. This neurotoxin was first shown to cause mortality of marine mammals in 1998. A decade of monitoring California sea lion ( Zalophus californianus) health since then has indicated that changes in the symptomatology and epidemiology of domoic acid toxicosis in this species are associated with the increase in toxigenic blooms. Two separate clinical syndromes now exist: acute domoic acid toxicosis as has been previously documented, and a second novel neurological syndrome characterized by epilepsy described here associated with chronic consequences of previous sub-lethal exposure to the toxin. This study indicates that domoic acid causes chronic damage to California sea lions and that these health effects are increasing.
Collapse
|
15
|
Neurological disease rises from ocean to bring model for human epilepsy to life. Toxins (Basel) 2010; 2:1646-75. [PMID: 22069654 PMCID: PMC3153267 DOI: 10.3390/toxins2071646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2010] [Revised: 05/28/2010] [Accepted: 06/11/2010] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Domoic acid of macroalgal origin was used for traditional and medicinal purposes in Japan and largely forgotten until its rediscovery in diatoms that poisoned 107 people after consumption of contaminated mussels. The more severely poisoned victims had seizures and/or amnesia and four died; however, one survivor unexpectedly developed temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) a year after the event. Nearly a decade later, several thousand sea lions have stranded on California beaches with neurological symptoms. Analysis of the animals stranded over an eight year period indicated five clusters of acute neurological poisoning; however, nearly a quarter have stranded individually outside these events with clinical signs of a chronic neurological syndrome similar to TLE. These poisonings are not limited to sea lions, which serve as readily observed sentinels for other marine animals that strand during domoic acid poisoning events, including several species of dolphin and whales. Acute domoic acid poisoning is five-times more prominent in adult female sea lions as a result of the proximity of their year-round breeding grounds to major domoic acid bloom events. The chronic neurological syndrome, on the other hand, is more prevalent in young animals, with many potentially poisoned in utero. The sea lion rookeries of the Channel Islands are at the crossroads of domoic acid producing harmful algal blooms and a huge industrial discharge site for dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDTs). Studies in experimental animals suggest that chronic poisoning observed in immature sea lions may result from a spatial and temporal coincidence of DDTs and domoic acid during early life stages. Emergence of an epilepsy syndrome from the ocean brings a human epilepsy model to life and provides unexpected insights into interaction with legacy contaminants and expression of disease at different life stages.
Collapse
|
16
|
Tiedeken JA, Ramsdell JS. Zebrafish seizure model identifies p,p -DDE as the dominant contaminant of fetal California sea lions that accounts for synergistic activity with domoic acid. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2010; 118:545-51. [PMID: 20368122 PMCID: PMC2854733 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.0901301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2009] [Accepted: 12/04/2009] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Fetal poisoning of California sea lions (CSLs; Zalophus californianus) has been associated with exposure to the algal toxin domoic acid. These same sea lions accumulate a mixture of persistent environmental contaminants including pesticides and industrial products such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs). Developmental exposure to the pesticide dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and its stable metabolite 1,1-bis-(4-chlorophenyl)-2,2-dichloroethene (p,p -DDE) has been shown to enhance domoic acid-induced seizures in zebrafish; however, the contribution of other co-occurring contaminants is unknown. OBJECTIVE We formulated a mixture of contaminants to include PCBs, PBDEs, hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH), and chlordane at levels matching those reported for fetal CSL blubber to determine the impact of co-occurring persistent contaminants with p,p -DDE on chemically induced seizures in zebrafish as a model for the CSLs. METHODS Embryos were exposed (6-30 hr postfertilization) to p,p -DDE in the presence or absence of a defined contaminant mixture prior to neurodevelopment via either bath exposure or embryo yolk sac microinjection. After brain maturation (7 days postfertilization), fish were exposed to a chemical convulsant, either pentylenetetrazole or domoic acid; resulting seizure behavior was then monitored and analyzed for changes, using cameras and behavioral tracking software. RESULTS Induced seizure behavior did not differ significantly between subjects with embryonic exposure to a contaminant mixture and those exposed to p,p -DDE only. CONCLUSION These studies demonstrate that p,p -DDE--in the absence of PCBs, HCH, chlordane, and PBDEs that co-occur in fetal sea lions--accounts for the synergistic activity that leads to greater sensitivity to domoic acid seizures.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jessica A Tiedeken
- Marine Biotoxins Program, Center for Coastal Environmental Health and Biomolecular Research, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Ocean Service, Charleston, South Carolina 29412, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
17
|
Silvestre F, Tosti E. Impact of marine drugs on animal reproductive processes. Mar Drugs 2009; 7:539-64. [PMID: 20098597 PMCID: PMC2810222 DOI: 10.3390/md7040539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2009] [Revised: 11/03/2009] [Accepted: 11/06/2009] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The discovery and description of bioactive substances from natural sources has been a research topic for the last 50 years. In this respect, marine animals have been used to extract many new compounds exerting different actions. Reproduction is a complex process whose main steps are the production and maturation of gametes, their activation, the fertilisation and the beginning of development. In the literature it has been shown that many substances extracted from marine organisms may have profound influence on the reproductive behaviour, function and reproductive strategies and survival of species. However, despite the central importance of reproduction and thus the maintenance of species, there are still few studies on how reproductive mechanisms are impacted by marine bioactive drugs. At present, studies in either marine and terrestrial animals have been particularly important in identifying what specific fine reproductive mechanisms are affected by marine-derived substances. In this review we describe the main steps of the biology of reproduction and the impact of substances from marine environment and organisms on the reproductive processes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Elisabetta Tosti
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail:
; Tel.: +39 081 5833288; Fax: +39 081 7641355
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Grant KS, Burbacher TM, Faustman EM, Gratttan L. Domoic acid: neurobehavioral consequences of exposure to a prevalent marine biotoxin. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2009; 32:132-41. [PMID: 19799996 DOI: 10.1016/j.ntt.2009.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2008] [Revised: 09/22/2009] [Accepted: 09/22/2009] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Domoic acid (DA), the cause of Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning, is a naturally occurring marine biotoxin that is usually produced by the microscopic algae Pseudo-nitzschia. As is the case for other types of toxic algae, Pseudo-nitzschia outbreaks are becoming more frequent. Acute high-dose symptomology in humans includes vomiting, cramping, coma and death as well as neurological effects such as hallucinations, confusion and memory loss. Experimental studies and medical reports have collectively shown that DA exposure primarily affects the hippocampal regions of the brain and is associated with seizures and the disruption of cognitive processes. The neurobehavioral signature of DA is unique in that it includes transient and permanent changes in memory function that resemble human antegrade amnesia. Experimental studies with adult nonhuman primates have established that DA is a dose-dependent emetic that produces clinical and neuropathological changes consistent with excitotoxicity. Behavioral evaluations of treated rodents have shown that hyperactivity and stereotypical scratching are the first functional markers of toxicity. Mid-dose treatment is associated with memory impairment and behavioral hyperreactivity, suggesting changes in arousal and/or emotionality. At higher doses, DA treatment results in frank neurotoxicity that is characterized by seizures, status epilepticus and death in treated animals. The route of DA exposure is important and influences the severity of effects; intraperitoneal and intravenous treatments produce classic signs of poisoning at significantly lower doses than oral exposure. While developmental studies are few, DA readily crosses the placenta and enters the fetal brain. Domoic acid is not associated with congenital dysmorphia but is linked to persistent changes in motor behavior and cognition in exposed offspring. Comparative research suggests that functional losses associated with DA can be persistent and injuries to the CNS can be progressive. Long-term studies will be necessary to accurately track the expression of DA-related injury, in health and behavior, over the lifespan.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kimberly S Grant
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
19
|
|
20
|
Tiedeken JA, Ramsdell JS. DDT exposure of zebrafish embryos enhances seizure susceptibility: relationship to fetal p,p'-DDE burden and domoic acid exposure of California sea lions. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2009; 117:68-73. [PMID: 19165389 PMCID: PMC2627867 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.11685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2008] [Accepted: 08/01/2008] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND California sea lions have a large body burden of organochlorine pesticides, and over the last decade they have also been subject to domoic acid poisoning. Domoic acid poisoning, previously recognized in adult animals, is now viewed as a major cause of prenatal mortality. The appearance of a chronic juvenile domoic acid disease in the sea lions, characterized by behavioral abnormalities and epilepsy, is consistent with early life poisoning and may be potentiated by organochlorine burden. OBJECTIVE We investigated the interactive effect of DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) on neurodevelopment using a zebrafish (Danio rerio) model for seizure behavior to examine the susceptibility to domoic acid-induced seizures after completion of neurodevelopment. METHODS Embryos were exposed (6-30 hr postfertilization) to either o,p'-DDT or p,p'-DDE (dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene) during neurodevelopment via a 0.1% dimethyl sulfoxide solution. These larval (7 days postfertilization) fish were then exposed to either the seizure-inducing drug pentylenetetrazol (PTZ) or domoic acid; resulting seizure behavior was monitored and analyzed for changes using cameras and behavioral tracking software. RESULTS Embryonic exposure to DDTs enhanced PTZ seizures and caused distinct and increased seizure behaviors to domoic acid, most notably a type of head-shaking behavior. CONCLUSION These studies demonstrate that embryonic exposure to DDTs leads to asymptomatic animals at completion of neurodevelopment with greater sensitivity to domoic acid-induced seizures. The body burden levels of p,p'-DDE are close to the range recently found in fetal California sea lions and suggest a potential interactive effect of p,p'-DDE embryonic poisoning and domoic acid toxicity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - John S. Ramsdell
- Address correspondence to J.S. Ramsdell, Center for Coastal Environmental Health and Biomolecular Research, 219 Fort Johnson Rd., Charleston, SC 29412 USA. Telephone: (843) 762-8910. Fax: (843) 762-8700. E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|