Comparison of Three Serological Methods for the Epidemiological Investigation of TBE in Dogs

Potential drivers of vector-borne pathogens in urban environments: European hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus) in the spotlight

Vector-borne diseases (VBDs) are considered as (re-)emerging, but information on the transmission cycles and wildlife reservoirs is often incomplete, particularly with regard to urban areas. The present study investigated blood samples from European hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus) presented at wildlife rehabilitation centres in the region of Hanover. Past exposure to B. burgdorferi sensu lato (s.l.) and tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) was assessed by serological detection of antibodies, while current infections with Borrelia spp., Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Rickettsia spp., Neoehrlichia mikurensis, Bartonella spp., Babesia spp. and Spiroplasma ixodetis were investigated by (q)PCR. Of 539 hedgehogs tested for anti-Borrelia antibodies, 84.8% (457/539) were seropositive, with a higher seropositivity rate in adult than subadult animals, while anti-TBEV antibodies were detected in one animal only (0.2%; 1/526). By qPCR, 31.2% (168/539) of hedgehog blood samples were positive for Borrelia spp., 49.7% (261/525) for A. phagocytophilum, 13.0% (68/525) for Bartonella spp., 8.2% for S. ixodetis (43/525), 8.0% (42/525) for Rickettsia spp. and 1.3% (7/525) for Babesia spp., while N. mikurensis was not detected. While further differentiation of Borrelia spp. infections was not successful, 63.2% of the A. phagocytophilum infections were assigned to the zoonotic ecotype I and among Rickettsia spp. infections, 50.0% to R. helvetica by ecotype- or species-specific qPCR, respectively. Sequencing revealed the presence of a Rickettsia sp. closely related to Rickettsia felis in addition to a Bartonella sp. previously described from hedgehogs, as well as Babesia microti and Babesia venatorum. These findings show that hedgehogs from rehabilitation centres are valuable sources to identify One Health pathogens in urban areas. The hedgehogs are not only exposed to pathogens from fleas and ticks in urban areas, but they also act as potent amplifiers for these vectors and their pathogens, relevant for citizens and their pets.

Exposure of cattle to tick-borne encephalitis virus in the historical endemic zone in north-eastern France

BACKGROUND

Tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) is a severe human neuroinfection caused by TBE virus (TBEV). TBEV is transmitted by tick bites and by the consumption of unpasteurized dairy products from infected asymptomatic ruminants. In France, several food-borne transmission events have been reported since 2020, raising the question of the level of exposure of domestic ungulates to TBEV. In this study, our objectives were (i) to estimate TBEV seroprevalence and quantify antibodies titres in cattle in the historical endemic area of TBEV in France using the micro virus neutralisation test (MNT) and (ii) to compare the performance of two veterinary cELISA kits with MNT for detecting anti-TBEV antibodies in cattle in various epidemiological contexts. A total of 344 cattle sera from four grid cells of 100 km² in Alsace-Lorraine (endemic region) and 84 from western France, assumed to be TBEV-free, were investigated.

RESULTS

In Alsace-Lorraine, cattle were exposed to the virus with an overall estimated seroprevalence of 57.6% (95% CI: 52.1-62.8%, n = 344), varying locally from 29.9% (95% CI: 21.0-40.0%) to 92.1% (95% CI: 84.5-96.8%). Seroprevalence did not increase with age, with one- to three-year-old cattle being as highly exposed as older ones, suggesting a short-life duration of antibodies. The proportion of sera with MNT titres lower than 1:40 per grid cell decreased with increased seroprevalence. Both cELISA kits showed high specificity (> 90%) and low sensitivity (less than 78.1%) compared with MNT. Sensitivity was lower for sera with neutralising antibodies titres below 1:40, suggesting that sensitivity of these tests varied with local virus circulation intensity.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results highlight that cattle were highly exposed to TBEV. Screening strategy and serological tests should be carefully chosen according to the purpose of the serological study and with regard to the limitations of each method.

Seroprevalence of tick-borne encephalitis virus in wild and domestic animals in northern Germany

Tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) is a tick-transmitted flavivirus, which can infect humans and animals, sometimes even with a fatal outcome. Since many decades, TBEV is endemic in southern Germany, while only sporadic occurrence has been noted in northern parts of the country so far. Nevertheless, autochthonous human clinical cases are increasing in the federal state of Lower Saxony in north-western Germany, and several natural foci of TBEV transmission have recently been detected in this federal state. In order to shed more light on the current distribution of TBEV in Lower Saxony, the present study examined blood samples from wild and domestic animals for antibodies against TBEV. Overall, samples from 4,085 animals were tested by ELISA, including wild boar (N = 1,208), roe deer (N = 149), red deer (N = 61), fallow deer (N = 18), red foxes (N = 9), nutria (N = 9), raccoon dogs (N = 3), raccoons (N = 3), badgers (N = 1), European pine martens (N = 1), horses (N = 574), sheep (N = 266), goats (N = 67), dogs (N = 1,317) and cats (N = 399). Samples with an ELISA result of ≥60 Vienna units (VIEU)/ml were subjected to confirmatory serum neutralization tests (SNT). In total, 343 of 4,085 (8.4%) animals tested positive for anti-TBEV-IgG by ELISA, of which 60 samples were confirmed by SNT. Samples of 89 animals showed a cytotoxic effect in the SNT and were excluded from seroprevalence calculation, resulting in an overall seroprevalence of 1.5% (60/3,996). Seroprevalence was higher among wild animals (wild boar: 2.9% [34/1,190], roe deer: 2.7% [4/149], red deer: 1.7% [1/60], fallow deer: 5.6% [1/18]) than among domestic animals (dogs: 1.1% [15/1,317], horses: 0.8% [4/505], sheep: 0.4% [1/266]). No anti-TBEV-antibodies were detected in the other wild animal species as well as goats and cats. A notable clustering of positive samples was observed in districts where TBEV transmission foci have been described. Further clusters in other districts suggest the existence of so far undetected transmission foci, underlining the fact that both wild and domestic animals are useful sentinels for monitoring the spread of TBEV.

Editorial for the Special Issue: “Tick-Borne Encephalitis”

Tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) is a disease caused by the tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) [...]

Comparison of Serological Methods for Tick-Borne Encephalitis Virus-Specific Antibody Detection in Wild Boar and Sheep: Impact of the Screening Approach on the Estimated Seroprevalence

Tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) is a flavivirus transmitted by ticks. Serological screenings in animals are performed to estimate the prevalence and distribution of TBEV. Most screenings consist of a primary screening by ELISA, followed by confirmation of positive samples by plaque reduction neutralization tests (PRNTs). In this study, 406 wild boar sera were tested with 2 regularly used commercial ELISAs for flavivirus screening in animals (Immunozym FSME (TBEV) IgG All Species (Progen) and ID Screen West Nile Competition (Innovative Diagnostics)) and PRNTs for TBEV and USUTU virus. The results showed that the Immunozym and IDScreen ELISAs had low relative sensitivities of 23% and 20%, respectively, compared to the PRNT results. The relative specificities were 88% and 84% due to cross reactions with USUTU virus-specific antibodies. The minimal TBEV prevalence in our sample set was 8.6% when determined by PRNT. When the screening approach of ELISA testing followed by PRNT confirmation was applied, a TBEV seroprevalence of only 2.0% and 1.7% was found. The suboptimal performance of the ELISAs was confirmed by testing sera collected from experimentally TBEV-infected sheep. While the PRNT detected TBEV specific antibodies in 94% of samples collected between 7 and 18 days post-infection, the ELISAs classified only 50% and 31% of the samples as positive. Both routinely used ELISAs for TBEV antibody screening in animal sera were shown to have a low sensitivity, potentially leading to an underestimation of the true prevalence, and furthermore cross-react with other flavivirus antibodies.

Seroprevalence of Tick-Borne Encephalitis (TBE) Virus Antibodies in Wild Rodents from Two Natural TBE Foci in Bavaria, Germany

Tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) is Eurasia's most important tick-borne viral disease. Rodents play an important role as natural hosts. Longitudinal studies on the dynamics of the seroprevalence rates in wild rodents in natural foci over the year are rare, and the dynamics of the transmission cycle still need to be understood. To better understand the infection dynamics, rodents were captured in a capture-mark-release-recapture-study in two natural foci in Bavaria, Germany, monthly from March 2019 to October 2022. Overall, 651 blood and thoracic lavage samples from 478 different wild rodents (Clethrionomys glareolus and Apodemus flavicollis) were analyzed for antibodies against tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) by indirect immunofluorescence assay (IIFA) and confirmed using a serum neutralization test (SNT). Furthermore, a generalized linear mixed model (GLMM) analysis was performed to investigate ecological and individual factors for the probability of infection in rodents. Clethrionomys glareolus (19.4%) had a higher seroprevalence than A. flavicollis (10.5%). Within Cl. glareolus, more males (40.4%) than females (15.6%) were affected, and more adults (25.4%) than juveniles (9.8%). The probability of infection of rodents rather depends on factors such as species, sex, and age than on the study site of a natural focus, year, and season. The high incidence rates of rodents, particularly male adult bank voles, highlight their critical role in the transmission cycle of TBEV in a natural focus and demonstrate that serologically positive rodents can be reliably detected in a natural focus regardless of season or year. In addition, these data contribute to a better understanding of the TBEV cycle and thus could improve preventive strategies for human infections.

Antibody ratios against NS1 antigens of tick-borne encephalitis and West Nile viruses support differential flavivirus serology in dogs

Flavivirus diagnostics are complicated by substantial cross-reactivity of antibodies between different flavivirus species. This is of particular importance in regions with multiple endemic flaviviruses in co-circulation. Tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) is the causative agent of tick-borne encephalitis, the most common infection of the central nervous system in endemic regions of Europe and Asia. Since 2018, the related West Nile virus (WNV) has spread to Germany where its geographic distribution overlaps with TBEV endemic regions. Besides humans, various animal species are susceptible to TBEV and WNV infection. To compare antibody responses against these flaviviruses and test for cross-reactivity, we developed a multi-species luciferase immunoprecipitation system antibody detection assay for several different antigens. We performed a serosurvey of 682 dogs from five different European countries to detect antibodies against TBEV and WNV. Twelve specimens were positive for TBEV NS1 only and seven for WNV NS1 only. Two specimens were reactive to both NS1 antigens and another two were equivocal for WNV NS1. Interestingly, 89.5% of positive specimens had TBEV/WNV or WNV/TBEV signal ratios of 10 to >300 between individual NS1 antigens, allowing for a clear distinction between the two viruses. The remaining 10.5% of reactive specimens showed a five- to 10-fold difference between the two viruses and included possible dual exposures to both viruses. In contrast, equivocal samples showed low signal ratios between the NS1 antigens, suggesting unspecific reactivity. Based on these data, we found the NS1 protein to be a suitable antigen to distinguish between TBEV- and WNV-specific antibodies in dogs with sensitivity and specificity similar to virus neutralization tests.

Seroprevalence and Risk Factors for Equine West Nile Virus Infections in Eastern Germany, 2020

West Nile virus (WNV) infections were first detected in Germany in 2018, but information about WNV seroprevalence in horses is limited. The study’s overall goal was to gather information that would help veterinarians, horse owners, and veterinary-, and public health- authorities understand the spread of WNV in Germany and direct protective measures. For this purpose, WNV seroprevalence was determined in counties with and without previously registered WNV infections in horses, and risk factors for seropositivity were estimated. The cohort consisted of privately owned horses from nine counties in Eastern Germany. A total of 940 serum samples was tested by competitive panflavivirus ELISA (cELISA), and reactive samples were further tested by WNV IgM capture ELISA and confirmed by virus neutralization test (VNT). Information about potential risk factors was recorded by questionnaire and analyzed by logistic regression. A total of 106 serum samples showed antibodies against flaviviruses by cELISA, of which six tested positive for WNV IgM. The VNT verified a WNV infection for 54 samples (50.9%), while 35 sera neutralized tick-borne encephalitis virus (33.0%), and eight sera neutralized Usutu virus (7.5%). Hence, seroprevalence for WNV infection was 5.8% on average and was significantly higher in counties with previously registered infections (p = 0.005). The risk factor analysis showed breed type (pony), housing in counties with previously registered infections, housing type (24 h turn-out), and presence of outdoor shelter as the main significant risk factors for seropositivity. In conclusion, we estimated the extent of WNV infection in the resident horse population in Eastern Germany and showed that seroprevalence was higher in counties with previously registered equine WNV infections.

Experimental and Natural Infections of Tick-Borne Encephalitis Virus in Dogs

Dogs are frequently infected with the tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV). However, to date, only a few clinically manifest cases of tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) have been reported in dogs. In this study, three-month-old beagle dogs were infected with TBEV through a subcutaneous injection. Body temperature, clinical signs, blood haematology, blood biochemistry, and immune responses were monitored for up to 28 days postinfection (p.i.). No changes in body temperature or clinical signs were observed in the infected dogs. Most haematology and blood biochemistry parameters were unchanged after the infection, except for a slight reduction in blood lymphocyte counts, but they were within the physiological range. Low-titre viraemia was detected in 2/4 infected dogs between days 1 and 3 p.i. All infected dogs developed a robust immune response, in terms of neutralising antibodies. Thus, TBEV infections lead to effective seroconversion in dogs. Next, to assess TBEV exposure in dogs in the TBEV-endemic region of the Czech Republic, we conducted a serosurvey. Virus neutralisation tests revealed TBEV-specific antibodies in 17 of 130 (13.07%) healthy dogs, which confirmed a high, but clinically inappreciable TBEV exposure rate in the endemic area. The seropositivity rate was similar (12.7%; 41 positives out of 323) in a subgroup of dogs with various clinical disorders, and it was 13.4% (23 out of 171) in a subgroup of dogs with signs of acute neurological disease. Two dogs with fatal acute meningoencephalitis showed positive results for TBEV-specific IgM and IgG antibodies. These data extended our understanding of the clinical presentation of TBEV infections.

Evaluation of antibodies in cerebrospinal fluid for the diagnosis of tick-borne encephalitis in dogs

Tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) is caused by the neurotropic tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV). In dogs, this virus may affect the central nervous system (CNS), causing meningoencephalitis, meningomyelitis, radiculitis or any combination of these. Diagnosis of TBE relies on a combination of clinical signs of CNS disease and laboratory findings, including CSF pleocytosis and serum TBEV antibody titers. Exposure to TBEV does not necessarily cause clinical disease, and seroprevalence has been reported as high as 40% in endemic areas. This causes concerns of over-diagnosing TBE in dogs with CNS disease. By examining TBEV antibodies in dogs with and without neurological disease in a TBEV endemic area, this study aimed to evaluate the diagnostic value of TBEV antibodies in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in dogs. Eighty-nine dogs were included in the study, 56 with neurological disease and 33 neurologically normal control dogs. A positive TBEV CSF and serum IgG antibody titer (> 126 U/mL) was found in 3/89 dogs (3.4%). A positive serum TBEV antibody titer was found in 11 of the 89 dogs (12.4%). None of the control dogs showed a positive CSF antibody titer, whilst two showed positive serum concentrations. A positive CSF IgG antibody titer supports a clinical diagnosis of TBE in patients with acute onset of CNS disease and may help reduce the risk of over-diagnosis.

The European bison (Bison bonasus) as an indicatory species for the circulation of tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) in natural foci in Poland

Tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) is one of the most common zoonotic diseases in Europe transmitted by Ixodidae vectors. While small mammals such as bank voles and ticks constitute the main reservoirs for virus transmission, large sylvatic species act as a food source for ticks. Cervids such as roe deer and red deer are considered sentinel species for TBE in natural foci. In addition, an increase of the population size and density of large wild mammals in an area corresponds to an increase in the tick burden and may potentially increase the prevalence of TBE virus (TBEV) in ticks and tick hosts and further exposure risk in humans. Humans are considered accidental hosts. The prevalence of TBE relies on interactions between host, vector and environment. The present study examines the exposure of the largest European herbivore, the European bison (Bison bonasus) to TBEV infection. Assessed using the IMMUNOZYM FSME ELISA (PROGEN), the overall TBEV seroprevalence was 62.7% in the 335 European bison that were studied. ELISA results were confirmed by the gold-standard virus neutralization test (VNT) with 98.7% sensitivity and thus giving a true prevalence of 63.5%. TBEV seroprevalence was significantly correlated to the origin, age group, sex, population type (free living/captive) and sanitary status (healthy/selectively eliminated/found dead/killed in accident) of the European bison in the univariable analysis. The highest seroprevalences were observed in the three largest north-eastern wild populations (Białowieska, Borecka and Knyszyńska forests), which corresponded with the highest incidence of human cases reported in the country. The risk of TBEV seropositivity increased with age and was higher in female and free-ranging European bison. Additionally, to the epidemiological investigation, the continuous detection of TBEV antibodies was studied by repetitive testing of animals over the course of 34 months. Two of six seropositive animals remained seropositive throughout the study. The presence of antibodies was followed throughout the study in seropositive European bison and for at least a year in animals that seroconverted during the observation period.