Recent Advances in the Inhibition of p38 MAPK as a Potential Strategy for the Treatment of Alzheimer's Disease

Signaling pathways in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease with acupuncture: a narrative review

BACKGROUND

To date, there is no effective treatment for Alzheimer's disease (AD), a progressive neurodegenerative disorder that is increasing in prevalence worldwide. The objective of this review was to summarize the core targets and signaling pathways involved in acupuncture treatment for AD.

METHODS

We reviewed numerous signaling pathways, including mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-protein kinase B (PI3 K/Akt), adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK), mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), nuclear factor (NF)-kB, p53, Wnt, nitric oxide (NO), Janus kinase / signal transducer and activator of transcription (JAK/ STAT), RhoA/ROCK (Rho-associated protein kinase) and Ca2+/ calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) / cyclic adenosine monophosphate-response element-binding protein (CREB). The relevant data were obtained from PubMed, EMBASE, Web of Science, China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) and Wanfang databases.

RESULTS

In summary, the effects of acupuncture are mediated by multiple targets and pathways. Furthermore, acupuncture can improve pathological changes associated with AD (such as abnormal deposition of amyloid (A)β, tau hyperphosphorylation, synaptic dysfunction and neuronal apoptosis) through multiple signaling pathways.

CONCLUSION

Overall, our findings provide a basis for future research into the effects of acupuncture on AD.

Ferroptosis mechanism and Alzheimer's disease

Regulated cell death is a genetically determined form of programmed cell death that commonly occurs during the development of living organisms. This process plays a crucial role in modulating homeostasis and is evolutionarily conserved across a diverse range of living organisms. Ferroptosis is a classic regulatory mode of cell death. Extensive studies of regulatory cell death in Alzheimer's disease have yielded increasing evidence that ferroptosis is closely related to the occurrence, development, and prognosis of Alzheimer's disease. This review summarizes the molecular mechanisms of ferroptosis and recent research advances in the role of ferroptosis in Alzheimer's disease. Our findings are expected to serve as a theoretical and experimental foundation for clinical research and targeted therapy for Alzheimer's disease.

Exploring the potential mechanism of ginsenoside Rg1 to regulate ferroptosis in Alzheimer's disease based on network pharmacology

OBJECTIVES

To explore the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD), the potential targets and signaling pathways of ginsenoside Rg1 against AD were investigated by network pharmacology METHODS: Ginsenoside Rg1 targets were identified through PubChem, PharmMapper, and Uniprot databases, while the GeneCards database was used to examine the respective targets of amyloid precursor protein (APP) and AD. Then, the common targets between ginsenoside Rg1 and APP were explored by the Venny tool, the interaction network diagram between the active components and the targets was built via Cytoscape software, as well as GO enrichment and KEGG pathway annotation analysis were performed. Furthermore, genes associated with ferroptosis were found by the GeneCards and FerrDb databases. Besides, the connection among ginsenoside Rg1, APP, ferroptosis, and AD was predicted and analyzed. Finally, the effects of ginsenosides Rg1 and liproxstain-1 on the proliferation and differentiation of APP/PS1 mice were evaluated by immunohistochemistry RESULTS: Ginsenoside Rg1, APP, ferroptosis, and AD had 12 hub genes. GO enrichment and KEGG pathway annotation analysis showed that EGFR, SRC, protein hydrolysis, protein phosphorylation, the Relaxin pathway, and the FoxO signaling pathway play an important role in the potential mechanism of ginsenoside Rg1's under regulation of ferroptosis anti-AD through the modulation of APP-related signaling pathways. The APP/PS1 mice experiment verified that ginsenosides Rg1 and liproxstain-1 can promote the proliferation and differentiation CONCLUSION: Ginsenoside Rg1, APP and ferroptosis may act on EGFR, SRC, the Relaxin and FoxO signaling pathways to regulate protein metabolism, protein phosphorylation and other pathways to improve AD symptoms.

Evolving Significance of Kinase Inhibitors in the Management of Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease is a neurodegenerative problem with progressive loss of memory and other cognitive function disorders resulting in the imbalance of neurotransmitter activity and signaling progression, which poses the need of the potential therapeutic target to improve the intracellular signaling cascade brought by kinases. Protein kinase plays a significant and multifaceted role in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease, by targeting pathological mechanisms like tau hyperphosphorylation, neuroinflammation, amyloid-beta production and synaptic dysfunction. In this review, we thoroughly explore the essential protein kinases involved in Alzheimer's disease, detailing their physiological roles, regulatory impacts, and the newest inhibitors and compounds that are progressing into clinical trials. All the findings of studies exhibited the promising role of kinase inhibitors in the management of Alzheimer's disease. However, it still poses the need of addressing current challenges and opportunities involved with this disorder for the future perspective of kinase inhibitors in the management of Alzheimer's disease. Further study includes the development of biomarkers, combination therapy, and next-generation kinase inhibitors with increased potency and selectivity for its future prospects.

The duality of amyloid-β: its role in normal and Alzheimer's disease states

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a degenerative neurological condition that gradually impairs cognitive abilities, disrupts memory retention, and impedes daily functioning by impacting the cells of the brain. A key characteristic of AD is the accumulation of amyloid-beta (Aβ) plaques, which play pivotal roles in disease progression. These plaques initiate a cascade of events including neuroinflammation, synaptic dysfunction, tau pathology, oxidative stress, impaired protein clearance, mitochondrial dysfunction, and disrupted calcium homeostasis. Aβ accumulation is also closely associated with other hallmark features of AD, underscoring its significance. Aβ is generated through cleavage of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) and plays a dual role depending on its processing pathway. The non-amyloidogenic pathway reduces Aβ production and has neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory effects, whereas the amyloidogenic pathway leads to the production of Aβ peptides, including Aβ40 and Aβ42, which contribute to neurodegeneration and toxic effects in AD. Understanding the multifaceted role of Aβ, particularly in AD, is crucial for developing effective therapeutic strategies that target Aβ metabolism, aggregation, and clearance with the aim of mitigating the detrimental consequences of the disease. This review aims to explore the mechanisms and functions of Aβ under normal and abnormal conditions, particularly in AD, by examining both its beneficial and detrimental effects.

Gliclazide Ameliorates Neuronal Injury by Attenuating Oxidative Stress in D-gal-Induced Senescent Cells and Aging Mice

Enhancement of oxidative stress and resultant neuronal injury play important roles in initiating cognitive impairment during the aging process. Thus, attenuating oxidative injury is regarded as a profitable therapeutic strategy for age-associated cognitive impairment. Previous studies showed that gliclazide (Gli) had a protective role in neuronal injury from cerebral ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury. However, whether Gli has a profitable effect on age-associated cognitive impairment remains largely unclear. The present study showed that Gli held the potential to attenuate neuronal apoptosis in D-gal-induced senescent cells and aging mice. Additionally, Gli could alleviate synaptic injury and cognitive function in D-gal-induced aging mice. Further study showed that Gli could attenuate oxidative stress in D-gal-induced senescent cells and aging mice. The p38 MAPK pathway was predicted as the downstream target of Gli retarding oxidative stress using in silico analysis. Further studies revealed that Gli attenuated D-gal-induced phosphorylation of p38 and facilitated Nrf2 nuclear expression, indicating that the anti-oxidative property of Gli may be associated with the p38 MAPK pathway. The study demonstrates that Gli has a beneficial effect on ameliorating D-gal-induced neuronal injury and cognitive impairment, making this compound a promising agent for the prevention and treatment of age-associated cognitive impairment.

miRNAs in cerebrospinal fluid associated with Alzheimer's disease: A systematic review and pathway analysis using a data mining and machine learning approach

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common type and accounts for 60%-70% of the reported cases of dementia. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNAs that play a crucial role in gene expression regulation. Although the diagnosis of AD is primarily clinical, several miRNAs have been associated with AD and considered as potential markers for diagnosis and progression of AD. We sought to match AD-related miRNAs in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) found in the GeoDataSets, evaluated by machine learning, with miRNAs listed in a systematic review, and a pathway analysis. Using machine learning approaches, we identified most differentially expressed miRNAs in Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO), which were validated by the systematic review, using the acronym PECO-Population (P): Patients with AD, Exposure (E): expression of miRNAs, Comparison (C): Healthy individuals, and Objective (O): miRNAs differentially expressed in CSF. Additionally, pathway enrichment analysis was performed to identify the main pathways involving at least four miRNAs selected. Four miRNAs were identified for differentiating between patients with and without AD in machine learning combined to systematic review, and followed the pathways analysis: miRNA-30a-3p, miRNA-193a-5p, miRNA-143-3p, miRNA-145-5p. The pathways epidermal growth factor, MAPK, TGF-beta and ATM-dependent DNA damage response, were regulated by these miRNAs, but only the MAPK pathway presented higher relevance after a randomic pathway analysis. These findings have the potential to assist in the development of diagnostic tests for AD using miRNAs as biomarkers, as well as provide understanding of the relationship between different pathophysiological mechanisms of AD.

Up-regulation of Trim28 in pregnancy-induced hypertension is involved in the injury of human umbilical vein endothelial cells through the p38 signaling pathway

AIMS

The present study is to analyze the regulation and potential molecular mechanism of Trim28 on vascular endothelial injury induced by pregnancy-induced hypertension (PIH).

METHODS

Trim28 mRNA in placental tissues and peripheral blood from PIH patients were determined by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. The serum from PIH was used to stimulate human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). After silencing Trim28 in HUVECs, we used CCK-8 assay, Transwell assay and flow cytometry to investigate proliferation, migration and apoptosis. Western blotting was used to measure Trim28 protein level and p38 phosphorylation level. After addition of p38 inhibitor, the proliferation, migration and apoptosis of HUVECs with silenced Trim28 were studied again.

RESULTS

Trim28 expression in placental tissues and peripheral blood from PIH patients is elevated, and serum from these patients can up-regulate the expression of Trim28 in HUVECs in vitro. Trim28 silencing significantly inhibits the proliferation and migration of HUVECs by affecting the cell cycle. Down-regulation of Trim28 expression promotes the apoptosis of HUVECs. Trim28 regulates the biological function of HUVECs by affecting the activity of the p38 signaling pathway.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study demonstrates that Trim28 is up-regulated in peripheral blood of patients with PIH and participates in HUVECs injury through the p38 signaling pathway.

Practical Three-Component Regioselective Synthesis of Drug-Like 3-Aryl(or heteroaryl)-5,6-dihydrobenzo[h]cinnolines as Potential Non-Covalent Multi-Targeting Inhibitors To Combat Neurodegenerative Diseases

Neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) are one of the prominent health challenges facing contemporary society, and many efforts have been made to overcome and (or) control it. In this research paper, we described a practical one-pot two-step three-component reaction between 3,4-dihydronaphthalen-1(2H)-one (1), aryl(or heteroaryl)glyoxal monohydrates (2a-h), and hydrazine monohydrate (NH2NH2•H2O) for the regioselective preparation of some 3-aryl(or heteroaryl)-5,6-dihydrobenzo[h]cinnoline derivatives (3a-h). After synthesis and characterization of the mentioned cinnolines (3a-h), the in silico multi-targeting inhibitory properties of these heterocyclic scaffolds have been investigated upon various Homo sapiens-type enzymes, including hMAO-A, hMAO-B, hAChE, hBChE, hBACE-1, hBACE-2, hNQO-1, hNQO-2, hnNOS, hiNOS, hPARP-1, hPARP-2, hLRRK-2(G2019S), hGSK-3β, hp38α MAPK, hJNK-3, hOGA, hNMDA receptor, hnSMase-2, hIDO-1, hCOMT, hLIMK-1, hLIMK-2, hRIPK-1, hUCH-L1, hPARK-7, and hDHODH, which have confirmed their functions and roles in the neurodegenerative diseases (NDs), based on molecular docking studies, and the obtained results were compared with a wide range of approved drugs and well-known (with IC50, EC50, etc.) compounds. In addition, in silico ADMET prediction analysis was performed to examine the prospective drug properties of the synthesized heterocyclic compounds (3a-h). The obtained results from the molecular docking studies and ADMET-related data demonstrated that these series of 3-aryl(or heteroaryl)-5,6-dihydrobenzo[h]cinnolines (3a-h), especially hit ones, can really be turned into the potent core of new drugs for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases (NDs), and/or due to the having some reactionable locations, they are able to have further organic reactions (such as cross-coupling reactions), and expansion of these compounds (for example, with using other types of aryl(or heteroaryl)glyoxal monohydrates) makes a new avenue for designing novel and efficient drugs for this purpose.

Cross-Talking Pathways of Rapidly Accelerated Fibrosarcoma-1 (RAF-1) in Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) becomes one of the main global burden diseases with the aging population. This study was to investigate the potential molecular mechanisms of rapidly accelerated fibrosarcoma-1 (RAF-1) in AD through bioinformatics analysis. Differential gene expression analysis was performed in GSE132903 dataset. We used weight gene correlation network analysis (WGCNA) to evaluate the relations among co-expression modules and construct global regulatory network. Cross-talking pathways of RAF-1 in AD were identified by functional enrichment analysis. Totally, 2700 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were selected between AD versus non-dementia control and RAF-1-high versus low group. Among them, DEGs in turquoise module strongly associated with AD and high expression of RAF-1 were enriched in vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), neurotrophin, mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway, oxidative phosphorylation, GABAergic synapse, and axon guidance. Moreover, cross-talking pathways of RAF-1, including MAPK, VEGF, neurotrophin signaling pathways, and axon guidance, were identified by global regulatory network. The performance evaluation of AUC was 84.2%. The gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) indicated that oxidative phosphorylation and synapse-related biological processes were enriched in RAF-1-high and AD group. Our findings strengthened the potential roles of high RAF-1 level in AD pathogenesis, which were mediated by MAPK, VEGF, neurotrophin signaling pathways, and axon guidance.

Application of CRISPR/Cas9 System in the Treatment of Alzheimer's Disease and Neurodegenerative Diseases

Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and Huntington's are some of the most common neurological disorders, which affect millions of people worldwide. Although there have been many treatments for these diseases, there are still no effective treatments to treat or completely stop these disorders. Perhaps the lack of proper treatment for these diseases can be related to various reasons, but the poor results related to recent clinical research also prompted doctors to look for new treatment approaches. In this regard, various researchers from all over the world have provided many new treatments, one of which is CRISPR/Cas9. Today, the CRISPR/Cas9 system is mostly used for genetic modifications in various species. In addition, by using the abilities available in the CRISPR/Cas9 system, researchers can either remove or modify DNA sequences, which in this way can establish a suitable and useful treatment method for the treatment of genetic diseases that have undergone mutations. We conducted a non-systematic review of articles and study results from various databases, including PubMed, Medline, Web of Science, and Scopus, in recent years. and have investigated new treatment methods in neurodegenerative diseases with a focus on Alzheimer's disease. Then, in the following sections, the treatment methods were classified into three groups: anti-tau, anti-amyloid, and anti-APOE regimens. Finally, we discussed various applications of the CRISPR/Cas-9 system in Alzheimer's disease. Today, using CRISPR/Cas-9 technology, scientists create Alzheimer's disease models that have a more realistic phenotype and reveal the processes of pathogenesis; following the screening of defective genes, they establish treatments for this disease.

Identification of new 5-(2,6-dichlorophenyl)-3-oxo-2,3-dihydro-5H-thiazolo[3,2-a]pyrimidine-7-carboxylic acids as p38α MAPK inhibitors: Design, synthesis, antitumor evaluation, molecular docking and in silico studies

In pursuit of discovering novel scaffolds that demonstrate potential inhibitory activity against p38α MAPK and possess strong antitumor effects, we herein report the design and synthesis of new series of 17 final target 5-(2,6-dichlorophenyl)-3-oxo-2,3-dihydro-5H-thiazolo[3,2-a]pyrimidine-7-carboxylic acids (4-20). Chemical characterization of the compounds was performed using FT-IR, NMR, elemental analyses and mass spectra of some representative examples. With many compounds showing potential inhibitory activity against p38α MAPK, two derivatives, 8 and 9, demonstrated the highest activity (>70 % inhibition) among the series. Derivative 9 displayed IC50 value nearly 2.5 folds more potent than 8. As anticipated, they both showed explicit interactions inside the kinase active site with the key binding amino acid residues. Screening both compounds for cytotoxic effects, they exhibited strong antitumor activities against lung (A549), breast (MCF-7 and MDA MB-231), colon (HCT-116) and liver (Hep-G2) cancers more potent than reference 5-FU. Their noticeable strong antitumor activity pointed out to the possibility of an augmented DNA binding mechanism of antitumor action besides their kinase inhibition. Both 8 and 9 exhibited strong ctDNA damaging effects in nanomolar range. Further mechanistic antitumor studies revealed ability of compounds 8 and 9 to arrest cell cycle in MCF-7 cells at S phase, while in HCT-116 treated cells at G0-G1 and G2/M phases. They also displayed apoptotic induction effects in both MCF-7 and HCT-116 with total cell deaths more than control untreated cells in reference to 5-FU. Finally, the compounds were tested for their anti-migratory potential utilizing wound healing assay. They induced a significant decrease in wound closure percentage after 24 h treatment in the examined cancer cells when compared to untreated control MCF-7 and HCT-116 cells better than 5-FU. In silico computation of physicochemical parameters revealed the drug-like properties of 8 and 9 with no violation to Lipinski's rule of five as well as their tolerable ADMET parameters, thus suggesting their utilization as potential future drug leads amenable for further optimization and development.

Involvement of Glucosamine 6 Phosphate Isomerase 2 (GNPDA2) Overproduction in β-Amyloid- and Tau P301L-Driven Pathomechanisms

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative olfactory disorder affecting millions of people worldwide. Alterations in the hexosamine- or glucose-related pathways have been described through AD progression. Specifically, an alteration in glucosamine 6 phosphate isomerase 2 (GNPDA2) protein levels has been observed in olfactory areas of AD subjects. However, the biological role of GNPDA2 in neurodegeneration remains unknown. Using mass spectrometry, multiple GNPDA2 interactors were identified in human nasal epithelial cells (NECs) mainly involved in intraciliary transport. Moreover, GNPDA2 overexpression induced an increment in NEC proliferation rates, accompanied by transcriptomic alterations in Type II interferon signaling or cellular stress responses. In contrast, the presence of beta-amyloid or mutated Tau-P301L in GNPDA2-overexpressing NECs induced a slowdown in the proliferative capacity in parallel with a disruption in protein processing. The proteomic characterization of Tau-P301L transgenic zebrafish embryos demonstrated that GNPDA2 overexpression interfered with collagen biosynthesis and RNA/protein processing, without inducing additional changes in axonal outgrowth defects or neuronal cell death. In humans, a significant increase in serum GNPDA2 levels was observed across multiple neurological proteinopathies (AD, Lewy body dementia, progressive supranuclear palsy, mixed dementia and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis) (n = 215). These data shed new light on GNPDA2-dependent mechanisms associated with the neurodegenerative process beyond the hexosamine route.

Acanthopanax senticosus improves cognitive impairment in Alzheimer's disease by promoting the phosphorylation of the MAPK signaling pathway

Background

Acanthopanax senticosus (AS) can improve sleep, enhance memory, and reduce fatigue and is considered as an effective drug for Alzheimer's disease (AD). The therapeutic effect and mechanism need to be further investigated.

Methods

To confirm the AS play efficacy in alleviating memory impairment in mice, 5×FAD transgenic mice were subjected to an open-field experiment and a novelty recognition experiment. Network pharmacology technique was used to analyze the information of key compounds and potential key targets of AS for the treatment of AD, molecular docking technique was applied to predict the binding ability of targets and compounds, and Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analyses were also performed on the targets to derive the possible metabolic processes and pathway mechanisms of AS in treating AD. Quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) and western blot technique were carried out to validate the candidate genes and pathways.

Results

In the open-field experiment, compared with the wild-type (WT) group, the number of times the mice in the AD group crossed the central zone was significantly reduced (P< 0.01). Compared with the AD group, the number of times the mice in the AS group crossed the central zone was significantly increased (P< 0.001). In the new object recognition experiment, compared with the WT group, the percentage of times the AD group explored new objects was significantly reduced (P< 0.05). Compared with the AD group, the AS group had an increase in the percentage of time spent exploring new things and the number of times it was explored (P< 0.05). At the same time, the donepezil group had a significantly higher percentage of times exploring new things (P< 0.01). By using network pharmacology technology, 395 common targets of AS and AD were retrieved. The Cytoscape software was used to construct the protein-protein interaction (PPI) network of common targets. Using the algorithm, nine key targets were retrieved: APP, NTRK1, ESR1, CFTR, CSNK2A1, EGFR, ESR2, GSK3B, and PAK1. The results of molecular docking indicate that 11 pairs of compounds and their corresponding targets have a significant binding ability, as the molecular binding energies were less than -7.0. In comparison to the AD group, the mRNA expression of the key target genes was significantly decreased in the AS treatment group (P< 0.001). The KEGG analysis showed that the MAPK signaling pathway was significantly enriched, and Western blot confirmed that the TRAF6 protein decreased significantly (P< 0.0001). Meanwhile, the levels of MAP3K7 and P38 phosphorylation increased, and there was also an increase in the expression of HSP27 proteins.

Conclusion

Our study indicates that the multi-component and multi-target properties of AS play an important role in the alleviation of anxiety and memory impairment caused by AD, and the mechanism is involved in the phosphorylation and activation of the MAPK signaling pathway. The results of this study could provide a novel perspective for the clinical treatment of AD.

4-Hydroxysesamin, a Modified Natural Compound, Attenuates Neuronal Apoptosis After Ischemic Stroke via Inhibiting MAPK Pathway

Background

The 4-hydroxysesamin (4-HS, a di-tetrahydrofuran lignin) is a modified sesamin that was prepared in the laboratory. This preclinical study was designed to preliminarily investigate the neuroprotective properties of 4-HS.

Methods

In vitro, neuronal injury and inflammation were simulated by oxygen-glucose deprivation and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) exposure in mouse hippocampal neuronal HT22 cell line, and treated with 4-HS and/or metformin (MET, MAPK pathway activator for exploring mechanism). CCK-8, flow cytometry, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay were performed to evaluate cell viability, apoptosis, and inflammation. Apoptosis- and pathway-related proteins were detected by Western blotting. Middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) was constructed as a stroke model and treated with 4-HS for in vivo confirmation. Histological staining was used for in vivo evaluation of 4-HS properties.

Results

The 4-HS showed similar anti-inflammatory activity to sesamin but did not affect the cell viability of HT22 cells. In vitro, 4-HS improved the cell viability, ameliorated neuronal apoptosis, along with the reversion of apoptotic proteins (Bax, cleaved-caspase 3/9, Bcl-2) expression and inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, TNF-α, IL-10) in LPS-treated HT22 cells. The 4-HS suppressed the phosphorylation of ERK, JNK, and p38 but the addition of MET reversed 4-HS-induced changes of phenotype and protein expression in LPS-treated cells. In vivo, 4-HS showed apparent improvement in cerebral infarction, brain tissue morphology, neuronal architecture, apoptosis, and inflammation of MCAO mice, and also showed inhibiting effects on the phosphorylation of ERK, JNK, and p38, confirming in vivo results.

Conclusion

In this first pre-clinical study on 4-HS, we preliminarily demonstrated the neuroprotective properties of 4-HS both in cell and animal models, and proposed that the underlying mechanism might be associated with the MAPK pathway.

Quercetin Regulates Microglia M1/M2 Polarization and Alleviates Retinal Inflammation via ERK/STAT3 Pathway

Retinal inflammation is a pivotal characteristic observed in various retinal degenerative disorders, notably age-related macular degeneration (AMD), primarily orchestrated by the activation of microglia. Targeting the inhibition of microglial activation has emerged as a therapeutic focal point. Quercetin (Qu), ubiquitously present in dietary sources and tea, has garnered attention for its anti-neuroinflammatory properties. However, the impact of Qu on retinal inflammation and the associated mechanistic pathways remains incompletely elucidated. In this study, retinal inflammation was induced in adult male C57BL/6 J mice through intraperitoneal administration of LPS. The results revealed that Qu pre-treatment induces a phenotypic shift in microglia from M1 phenotype to M2 phenotype. Furthermore, Qu attenuated retinal inflammation and stabilized the integrity of the blood-retina barrier (BRB). In vitro experiments revealed that Qu impedes microglial activation, proliferation, and migration, primarily via modulation the ERK/STAT3 signaling pathway. Notably, these actions of Qu significantly contributed to the preservation of photoreceptors. Consequently, Qu pre-treatment holds promise as an effective strategy for controlling retinal inflammation and preserving visual function.

A case for seeking sex-specific treatments in Alzheimer's disease

There is no satisfactory explanation for the sex-related differences in the incidence of many diseases and this is also true of Alzheimer's disease (AD), where females have a higher lifetime risk of developing the disease and make up about two thirds of the AD patient population. The importance of understanding the cause(s) that account for this disproportionate distribution cannot be overestimated, and is likely to be a significant factor in the search for therapeutic strategies that will combat the disease and, furthermore, potentially point to a sex-targeted approach to treatment. This review considers the literature in the context of what is known about the impact of sex on processes targeted by drugs that are in clinical trial for AD, and existing knowledge on differing responses of males and females to these drugs. Current knowledge strongly supports the view that trials should make assessing sex-related difference in responses a priority with a focus on exploring the sex-stratified treatments.

Panaxadiol carbamate derivatives: Synthesis and biological evaluation as potential multifunctional anti-Alzheimer agents

It is reported that panaxadiol has neuroprotective effects. Previous studies have found that compound with carbamate structure introduced at the 3-OH position of 20 (R) -panaxadiol showed the most effective neuroprotective activity with an EC50 of 13.17 μM. Therefore, we designed and synthesized a series of ginseng diol carbamate derivatives with ginseng diol as the lead compound, and tested their anti-AD activity. It was found that the protective effect of compound Q4 on adrenal pheochromocytoma was 80.6 ± 10.85 % (15 μM), and the EC50 was 4.32 μM. According to the ELISA results, Q4 reduced the expression of Aβ25-35 by decreasing β-secretase production. Molecular docking studies revealed that the binding affinity of Q4 to β-secretase was -49.67 kcal/mol, indicating a strong binding affinity of Q4 to β-secretase. Western blotting showed that compound Q4 decreased IL-1β levels, which may contribute to its anti-inflammatory effect. Furthermore, compound Q4 exhibits anti-AD activities by reducing abnormal phosphorylation of tau protein and activation of the mitogen activated protein kinase pathway. The learning and memory deficits in mice treated with Q4in vivo were significantly alleviated. Therefore, Q4 may be a promising multifunctional drug for the treatment of AD, providing a new way for anti-AD drugs.

MKP-1 regulates the inflammatory activation of microglia against Alzheimer's disease

BACKGROUND

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is one of the most common neurodegenerative diseases leading to dementia in elderly people. Microglia-mediated neuroinflammation plays an important role in AD pathogenesis, so modulation of neuroinflammation has emerged as an essential therapeutic method to improve AD. The current study aims to investigate whether MKP-1 can regulate microglia phenotype and inflammatory factor release in AD and explore its possible mechanisms.

METHODS

Amyloid precursor protein/PS1 double transgenic mice and wild-type mice were selected to study the locations of microglia and amyloid-β (Aβ) plaques in different regions of mice brains. Changes in MKP-1 of microglia were detected using AD model mice and AD model cells. Changes in phenotype and the release of inflammatory factors within immortalized BV2 murine microglia were investigated by regulating the expression of MKP-1.

RESULTS

The distribution of microglia and Aβ plaques in the AD brain was region-specific. MKP-1 expression was downregulated in AD mice, and in vitro, with increasing Aβ concentrations, MKP-1 expression was reduced. MKP-1 over-expression increased M2 microglia but decreased M1 microglia accompanied by changes in inflammatory factors and inhibition of MKP-1 yielded the opposite result.

CONCLUSION

MKP-1 regulated microglia phenotype and inflammatory factor release in AD through modulation of the p38 signaling pathway.

Gene expression profile of mitogen-activated kinases and microRNAs controlling their expression in HaCaT cell culture treated with lipopolysaccharide A and cyclosporine A

Studies indicate that mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) are activated and overexpressed in psoriatic lesions. The aim of the study was to assess changes in the expression pattern of genes encoding MAPKs and microRNA (miRNA) molecules potentially regulating their expression in human adult low-calcium high-temperature (HaCaT) keratinocytes exposed to bacterial lipopolysaccharide A (LPS) and cyclosporine A (CsA). HaCaT cells were treated with 1 µg/mL LPS for 8 h, followed by treatment with 100 ng/mL cyclosporine A for 2, 8, or 24 h. Untreated cells served as controls. The molecular analysis consists of microarray, quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay analyses. The statistical analysis of the obtained results was performed using Transcriptome Analysis Console and STATISTICA 13.5 PL with the statistical significance threshold of p < 0.05. Changes in the expression profile of six mRNAs: dual-specificity phosphatase 1 (DUSP1), dual-specificity phosphatase 4 (DUSP4), mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 2 (MAP2K2), mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 7 (MAP2K7), mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase kinase 2 (MAP3K2) and mitogen-activated protein kinase 9 (MAPK9) in cell culture exposed to LPS or LPS and the drug compared to the control. We observed that under the LPS and cyclosporine treatment, the expression o/ miR-34a, miR-1275, miR-3188, and miR-382 changed significantly (p < 0.05). We demonstrated a potential relationship between DUSP1 and miR-34a; DUSP4 and miR-34a, miR-382, and miR-3188; MAPK9 and miR-1275, MAP2K7 and mir-200-5p; MAP3K2 and mir-200-5p, which may be the subject of further research in the context of psoriasis.

Systems pharmacology and multi-scale mechanism of Enicostema axillare bioactives in treating Alzheimer disease

As a progressive neurological disease with increased morbidity and mortality, Alzheimer Disease (AD) is characterized by neuron damage that controls memory and mental functions. Enicostema axillare (EA), an herb with a history of combativeness and effectiveness in treating Rheumatoid Arthritis, Cancer, and Diabetes, is used in Indian folk medicine from a holistic point of view. Though the herb is used for many illnesses, the molecular mechanism of its bioactive on AD has not been deciphered by intricate research. A unique pharmacology approach based on ADME drug screening and targeting, pathway enrichment (GO and KEGG), and network pharmacology, was established to explore the molecular mechanisms of E. axillare (EA) bioactive compounds for the treatment of AD. In brief, we bring to light the three active compounds of EA and seven potential molecular targets of AD, which are mainly implicated in four signaling pathways, i.e., MAPK, Apoptosis, neurodegeneration, and the TNF pathway. Moreover, the network analysis of the active compounds, molecular targets, and their pathways reveals the pharmacological nature of the compounds. Further, molecular docking studies were carried out to explore the interactions between the EA bioactive compounds and the targets and examine the binding affinity. The outcome of the work reflects the potential therapeutic effects of the compounds for treating AD through the modulation of the key proteins, which further corroborates the reliability of our network pharmacology analysis. This study not only helps in understanding the molecular mechanism of the drugs but also helps in finding and sorting new drugs for the treatment of AD, and other complex diseases through modern medicine.

Alzheimer's-specific brain amyloid interactome: Neural-network analysis of intra-aggregate crosslinking identifies novel drug targets

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by peri-neuronal amyloid plaque and intra-neuronal neurofibrillary tangles. These aggregates are identified by the immunodetection of "seed" proteins (Aβ1-42 and hyperphosphorylated tau, respectively), but include many other proteins incorporated nonrandomly. Using click-chemistry intra-aggregate crosslinking, we previously modeled amyloid "contactomes" in SY5Y-APPSw neuroblastoma cells, revealing that aspirin impedes aggregate growth and complexity. By an analogous strategy, we now construct amyloid-specific aggregate interactomes of AD and age-matched-control hippocampi. Comparing these interactomes reveals AD-specific interactions, from which neural-network (NN) analyses predict proteins with the highest impact on pathogenic aggregate formation and/or stability. RNAi knockdowns of implicated proteins, in C. elegans and human-cell-culture models of AD, validated those predictions. Gene-Ontology meta-analysis of AD-enriched influential proteins highlighted the involvement of mitochondrial and cytoplasmic compartments in AD-specific aggregation. This approach derives dynamic consensus models of aggregate growth and architecture, implicating highly influential proteins as new targets to disrupt amyloid accrual in the AD brain.

Microcurrent therapy as the nonpharmacological new protocol against Alzheimer's disease

Introduction

Alzheimer's disease (AD) poses an increasing global health challenge and is marked by gradual cognitive deterioration, memory impairment, and neuroinflammation. Innovative therapeutic approaches as non-pharmacological protocol are urgently needed with side effect risk of drugs. Microcurrent therapy, a non-invasive modality involving low-level electrical currents, has emerged as a potential solution to address AD's complex pathogenesis. This study investigates the optimal application of microcurrent therapy as a clinical protocol for AD, utilizing a comprehensive approach that integrates behavioral assessments and neuroinflammation evaluation in a mouse model of dementia.

Methods and results

The results reveal that microcurrent therapy holds promise in ameliorating memory impairment and reducing neuroinflammation in AD. Behavioral assessments, including the Novel Object Recognition Test (NOR) and Radial Arm Maze Test (RAM), demonstrated improved cognitive function following microcurrent therapy. Furthermore, microcurrent therapy inhibited expression of neuroinflammatory proteins, including ionized calcium binding adaptor molecule 1 (Iba1), and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) in current-treated group. Mechanistic insights suggest that microcurrent therapy may modulate neuroinflammation through the regulation of MAPK signaling pathways.

Conclusion

This study emphasizes the prospect of microcurrent therapy as a safe and efficacious non-pharmacological strategy for Alzheimer's disease (AD), providing optimism to the countless individuals impacted by this debilitating ailment. These results contribute to the developments of an innovative clinical protocol for AD and recovery from neurological injury, underscoring the significance of investigating unconventional therapeutic approaches for addressing this complex condition.

Ginsenoside Rg1, lights up the way for the potential prevention of Alzheimer's disease due to its therapeutic effects on the drug-controllable risk factors of Alzheimer's disease

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

In traditional Chinese medicine, Shen Nong, BenCao Jing, and Compendium of Materia Medica (Bencao Gangmu), Panax ginseng, and its prescriptions have been used for the treatment of dementia, depression, weight loss, Xiaoke disease (similar to diabetes), and vertigo. All these diseases are associated with the drug-controllable risk factors for Alzheimer's disease (AD), including depression, obesity, diabetes, and hypertension. Ginsenoside Rg1, one of the main active ingredients of P. ginseng and its congener Panax notoginseng, possesses therapeutic potentials against AD and associated diseases. This suggests that ginsenoside Rg1 might have the potential for AD prevention and treatment. Although the anti-AD effects of ginsenoside Rg1 have received more attention, a systematic review of its effects on depression, obesity, diabetes, and hypertension is not available.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

This systematic literature review comprehensively summarized existing literature on the therapeutic potentials of ginsenoside Rg1 in AD prevention for the propose of providing a foundation of future research aimed at enabling the use of such drugs in clinical practice.

METHODS

Information on ginsenoside Rg1 was collected from relevant published articles identified through a literature search in electronic scientific databases (PubMed, Science Direct, and Google Scholar). The keywords used were "Ginsenoside Rg1," "Panax ginseng," "Source," "Alzheimer's disease," "Brain disorders," "Depression," "Obesity," "Diabetes," and "Hypertension."

RESULTS

The monomer ginsenoside Rg1 can be relatively easily obtained and has therapeutic potentials against AD. In vitro and in vivo experiments have demonstrated the therapeutic potentials of ginsenoside Rg1 against the drug-controllable risk factors of AD including depression, obesity, diabetes, and hypertension. Thus, ginsenoside Rg1 alleviates diseases resulting from AD risk factors by regulating multiple targets and pathways.

CONCLUSIONS

Ginsenoside Rg1 has the potentials to prevent AD by alleviating depression, obesity, diabetes, and hypertension.

Effect of L-carnitine in Ameliorating Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Cardiomyocyte Injury via MAPK Signaling

The present study aimed to elucidate whether L-carnitine (LC) protected H9c2 cells and its underlying mechanisms. Cell counting kit-8 (CCK-8) assay was used to evaluate cell viability. Apoptosis, cell morphology, and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) assessment were used to prove effects of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and LC on H9c2 cells. RT-qPCR and western blot assays were hired to evaluate the mRNA and protein expression levels, respectively. ELISA assay was performed to determine the released protein levels. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) level was evaluated by immunofluorescence and flow cytometry. LC was revealed to protect H9c2 cells against LPS-induced injury as indicated by increased cell viability, reduced apoptosis ratio and LDH level. LC treatment also reduced BAX expression as well as up-regulated Bcl-2 expression under LPS treatment. Mechanically, LC reduced oxidative stress and ameliorated the mitochondrial injury through modulating extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 and c-Jun N-terminal protein kinase c-Jun N-terminal protein kinase phosphorylation levels as indicated by decreased membrane potential, increased ATP production and mtDNA expression. We found that LC ameliorates LPS-induced cardiomyocyte injury by abrogating cell apoptosis ratio, ROS levels, as well as mitochondrial dysfunction via mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling. Our findings revealed a potential drug for sepsis or LPS-induced cardiomyocyte injury.

Polyamine Dysregulation and Nucleolar Disruption in Alzheimer's Disease

A hypothesis of Alzheimer's disease etiology is proposed describing how cellular stress induces excessive polyamine synthesis and recycling which can disrupt nucleoli. Polyamines are essential in nucleolar functions, such as RNA folding and ribonucleoprotein assembly. Changes in the nucleolar pool of anionic RNA and cationic polyamines acting as counterions can cause significant nucleolar dynamics. Polyamine synthesis reduces S-adenosylmethionine which, at low levels, triggers tau phosphorylation. Also, polyamine recycling reduces acetyl-CoA needed for acetylcholine, which is low in Alzheimer's disease. Extraordinary nucleolar expansion and/or contraction can disrupt epigenetic control in peri-nucleolar chromatin, such as chromosome 14 with the presenilin-1 gene; chromosome 21 with the amyloid precursor protein gene; chromosome 17 with the tau gene; chromosome 19 with the APOE4 gene; and the inactive X chromosome (Xi; aka "nucleolar satellite") with normally silent spermine synthase (polyamine synthesis) and spermidine/spermine-N1-acetyltransferase (polyamine recycling) alleles. Chromosomes 17, 19 and the Xi have high concentrations of Alu elements which can be transcribed by RNA polymerase III if positioned nucleosomes are displaced from the Alu elements. A sudden flood of Alu RNA transcripts can competitively bind nucleolin which is usually bound to Alu sequences in structural RNAs that stabilize the nucleolar heterochromatic shell. This Alu competition leads to loss of nucleolar integrity with leaking of nucleolar polyamines that cause aggregation of phosphorylated tau. The hypothesis was developed with key word searches (e.g., PubMed) using relevant terms (e.g., Alzheimer's, lupus, nucleolin) based on a systems biology approach and exploring autoimmune disease tautology, gaining synergistic insights from other diseases.

Signalling Pathways Involved in Microglial Activation in Alzheimer's Disease and Potential Neuroprotective Role of Phytoconstituents

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a commonly reported neurodegenerative disorder associated with dementia and cognitive impairment. The pathophysiology of AD comprises Aβ, hyperphosphorylated tau protein formation, abrupt cholinergic cascade, oxidative stress, neuronal apoptosis, and neuroinflammation. Recent findings have established the profound role of immunological dysfunction and microglial activation in the pathogenesis of AD. Microglial activation is a multifactorial cascade encompassing various signalling molecules and pathways such as Nrf2/NLRP3/NF-kB/p38 MAPKs/ GSK-3β. Additionally, deposited Aβ or tau protein triggers microglial activation and accelerates its pathogenesis. Currently, the FDA-approved therapeutic regimens are based on the modulation of the cholinergic system, and recently, one more drug, aducanumab, has been approved by the FDA. On the one hand, these drugs only offer symptomatic relief and not a cure for AD. Additionally, no targetedbased microglial medicines are available for treating and managing AD. On the other hand, various natural products have been explored for the possible anti-Alzheimer effect via targeting microglial activation or different targets of microglial activation. Therefore, the present review focuses on exploring the mechanism and associated signalling related to microglial activation and a detailed description of various natural products that have previously been reported with anti-Alzheimer's effect via mitigation of microglial activation. Additionally, we have discussed the various patents and clinical trials related to managing and treating AD.

Targeting protein kinases for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease: Recent progress and future perspectives

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a serious neurodegenerative disease characterized by memory impairment, mental retardation, impaired motor balance, loss of self-care and even death. Among the complex and diverse pathological changes in AD, protein kinases are deeply involved in abnormal phosphorylation of Tau proteins to form intracellular neuronal fiber tangles, neuronal loss, extracellular β-amyloid (Aβ) deposits to form amyloid plaques, and synaptic disturbances. As a disease of the elderly, the growing geriatric population is directly driving the market demand for AD therapeutics, and protein kinases are potential targets for the future fight against AD. This perspective provides an in-depth look at the role of the major protein kinases (GSK-3β, CDK5, p38 MAPK, ERK1/2, and JNK3) in the pathogenesis of AD. At the same time, the development of different protein kinase inhibitors and the current state of clinical advancement are also outlined.

Exosomes for CRISPR-Cas9 Delivery: The Cutting Edge in Genome Editing

Gene mutation correction was challenging until the discovery of clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) and CRISPR-associated protein (Cas). CRISPR is a new era for genome modification, and this technology has bypassed the limitations of previous methods such as zinc-finger nuclease and transcription activator-like effector nuclease. Currently, this method is becoming the method of choice for gene-editing purposes, especially therapeutic gene editing in diseases such as cardiovascular, neurological, renal, genetic, optical, and stem cell, as well as blood disorders and muscular degeneration. However, finding the optimum delivery system capable of carrying this large complex persists as the main challenge of this technology. Therefore, it would be ideal if the delivery vehicle could direct the introduction of editing functions to specific cells in a multicellular organism. Exosomes are membrane-bound vesicles with high biocompatibility and low immunogenicity; they offer the best and most reliable way to fill the CRISPR/Cas9 system delivery gap. This review presents the current evidence on the molecular mechanisms and challenges of CRISPR/Cas9-mediated genome modification. Also, the role of CRISPR/Cas9 in the development of treatment and diagnosis of numerous disorders, from malignancies to viral infections, has been discussed. Lastly, the focus is on new advances in exosome-delivery technologies that may play a role in CRISPR/Cas9 delivery for future clinical settings.

Identification of Anti-Neuroinflammatory Bioactive Compounds in Essential Oils and Aqueous Distillation Residues Obtained from Commercial Varieties of Cannabis sativa L

Neuroinflammation, which is mainly triggered by microglia, is a key contributor to multiple neurodegenerative diseases. Natural products, and in particular Cannabis sativa L., due to its richness in phytochemical components, represent ideal candidates to counteract neuroinflammation. We previously characterized different C. sativa commercial varieties which showed significantly different chemical profiles. On these bases, the aim of this study was to evaluate essential oils and aqueous distillation residues from the inflorescences of three different hemp varieties for their anti-neuroinflammatory activity in BV-2 microglial cells. Cells were pretreated with aqueous residues or essential oils and then activated with LPS. Unlike essential oils, aqueous residues showed negligible effects in terms of anti-inflammatory activity. Among the essential oils, the one obtained from 'Gorilla Glue' was the most effective in inhibiting pro-inflammatory mediators and in upregulating anti-inflammatory ones through the modulation of the p38 MAPK/NF-κB pathway. Moreover, the sesquiterpenes (E)-caryophyllene, α-humulene, and caryophyllene oxide were identified as the main contributors to the essential oils' anti-inflammatory activity. To our knowledge, the anti-neuroinflammatory activity of α-humulene has not been previously described. In conclusion, our work shows that C. sativa essential oils characterized by high levels of sesquiterpenes can be promising candidates in the prevention/counteraction of neuroinflammation.

Phlomidis Radix Extract Alleviates Paclitaxel-Induced Neuropathic Pain by Modulating Spinal TRPV1 in Mice

Paclitaxel is a chemotherapeutic drug reported to have excellent activity against tumors; however, various side effects, including peripheral neuropathy, limit its use in some cases. In this study, the effect of Phlomidis radix (P.Radix) extract was assessed on paclitaxel-induced cold and mechanical peripheral neuropathy in mice. Multiple paclitaxel injections (accumulative dose of 8 mg/kg, i.p.) induced increased behavioral responses to cold and mechanical stimuli in mice from D10 to D21 after the first paclitaxel injection. Cold and mechanical stimuli were performed by acetone drop and von Frey filament, respectively. Oral administrations of 25% ethanol extract of P.Radix (300 and 500 mg/kg) relieved cold and mechanical pain in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, among the various transient receptor potential (TRP) cation channel subfamilies, paclitaxel upregulated the spinal gene expression of transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) and melastatin 4 (TRPM4), but not ankyrin 1 (TRPA1). However, 500 mg/kg but not 300 mg/kg of P.Radix extract significantly downregulated the gene expression of TRPV1 but not TRPM4. Among the components of P.Radix, sesamoside was identified and quantified by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), and the administration of sesamoside (7.5 mg/kg, i.p.) showed a similar analgesic effect to 300 mg/kg P.Radix. These results suggest that P.Radix and sesamoside should be considered when treating paclitaxel-induced neuropathic pain.

Simple model systems reveal conserved mechanisms of Alzheimer's disease and related tauopathies

The lack of effective therapies that slow the progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and related tauopathies highlights the need for a more comprehensive understanding of the fundamental cellular mechanisms underlying these diseases. Model organisms, including yeast, worms, and flies, provide simple systems with which to investigate the mechanisms of disease. The evolutionary conservation of cellular pathways regulating proteostasis and stress response in these organisms facilitates the study of genetic factors that contribute to, or protect against, neurodegeneration. Here, we review genetic modifiers of neurodegeneration and related cellular pathways identified in the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, and the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, focusing on models of AD and related tauopathies. We further address the potential of simple model systems to better understand the fundamental mechanisms that lead to AD and other neurodegenerative disorders.

Role of SIRT1 in sepsis-induced encephalopathy: Molecular targets for future therapies

Sepsis induces neuroinflammation, BBB disruption, cerebral hypoxia, neuronal mitochondrial dysfunction, and cell death causing sepsis-associated encephalopathy (SAE). These pathological consequences lead to short- and long-term neurobehavioural deficits. Till now there is no specific treatment that directly improves SAE and its associated behavioural impairments. In this review, we discuss the underlying mechanisms of sepsis-induced brain injury with a focus on the latest progress regarding neuroprotective effects of SIRT1 (silent mating type information regulation-2 homologue-1). SIRT1 is an NAD+ -dependent class III protein deacetylase. It is able to modulate multiple downstream signals (including NF-κB, HMGB, AMPK, PGC1α and FoxO), which are involved in the development of SAE by its deacetylation activity. There are multiple recent studies showing the neuroprotective effects of SIRT1 in neuroinflammation related diseases. The proposed neuroprotective action of SIRT1 is meant to bring a promising therapeutic strategy for managing SAE and ameliorating its related behavioural deficits.

Nimbolide Targets Multiple Signalling Pathways to Reduce Neuroinflammation in BV-2 Microglia

Nimbolide, a limonoid compound found in the neem plant, was investigated for effects on neuroinflammation in BV-2 microglia activated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Cultured BV-2 cells were treated with nimbolide (125, 250 and 500 nM) followed by stimulation with LPS (100 ng/ml). Results showed that nimbolide caused a significant reduction in the levels of TNFα, IL-6, IFNγ, NO/iNOS and PGE2/COX-2 in LPS-activated BV-2 cells. Further experiments revealed that LPS-induced increased expression of phospho-p65 and phospho-IκBα proteins were reduced in the presence of nimbolide. Also, LPS-induced NF-κB acetylation, increased binding to consensus sites and transactivation, as well as phosphorylation of p38 and JNK MAPKs were reduced by nimbolide. Reduction of cellular ROS generation by nimbolide was accompanied by a reduction in gp91phox protein levels, while antioxidant effects were also observed through elevation in protein levels of HO-1 and NQO-1. It was observed that treatment of BV-2 microglia with nimbolide resulted in reduced levels of cytoplasmic Nrf2, which was accompanied by increased levels in the nucleus. Furthermore, treatment with this compound resulted in increased binding of Nrf2 to antioxidant responsive element (ARE) consensus sites accompanied by enhanced ARE luciferase activity. Knockdown experiments revealed a loss of anti-inflammatory activity by nimbolide in cells transfected with Nrf2 siRNA. Treatment with nimbolide resulted in nuclear accumulation of SIRT-1, while siRNA knockdown of SIRT-1 resulted in the reversal of anti-inflammatory activity of nimbolide. It is proposed that nimbolide reduces neuroinflammation in BV-2 microglia through mechanisms resulting in dual inhibition of NF-κB and MAPK pathways. It is also proposed that activation of Nrf2 antioxidant mechanisms may be contributing to its anti-inflammatory activity.

Suppression of hnRNP A1 binding to HK1 RNA leads to glycolytic dysfunction in Alzheimer's disease models

Objective

To investigate the mechanism of RNA-binding protein hnRNP A1 in mouse hippocampal neurons (HT22) on glycolysis.

Methods

RIP and CLIP-qPCR were performed by HT22 in vitro to observe the mechanism of hnRNP A1 regulating the expression of key proteins in glycolysis. The RNA binding domain of hnRNP A1 protein in HT22 was inhibited by VPC-80051, and the effect of hnRNP A1 on glycolysis of HT22 was observed. Lentivirus overexpression of hnRNP A1 was used to observe the effect of overexpression of hnRNP A1 on glycolysis of Aβ25-35-injured HT22. The expression of hnRNP A1 in brain tissues of wild-type mice and triple-transgenic (APP/PS1/Tau) AD mice at different ages was studied by Western blot assay.

Results

The results of RIP experiment showed that hnRNP A1 and HK1 mRNA were significantly bound. The results of CLIP-qPCR showed that hnRNP A1 directly bound to the 2605-2821 region of HK1 mRNA. hnRNP A1 inhibitor can down-regulate the expression of HK1 mRNA and HK1 protein in HT22 cells. Overexpression of hnRNP A1 can significantly reduce the toxic effect of Aβ25-35 on neurons via the hnRNP A1/HK1/ pyruvate pathway. In addition, inhibition of hnRNP A1 binding to amyloid precursor protein (APP) RNA was found to increase Aβ expression, while Aβ25-35 also down-regulated hnRNP A1 expression by enhancing phosphorylation of p38 MAPK in HT22. They interact to form bidirectional regulation, further down-regulating the expression of hnRNP A1, and ultimately aggravating glycolytic dysfunction. Protein immunoblotting showed that hnRNP A1 decreased with age in mouse brain tissue, and the decrease was greater in AD mice, suggesting that the decrease of hnRNP A1 may be a predisposed factor in the pathogenesis of AD.

Identification of disulfidptosis-related genes and subgroups in Alzheimer's disease

Background

Alzheimer's disease (AD), a common neurological disorder, has no effective treatment due to its complex pathogenesis. Disulfidptosis, a newly discovered type of cell death, seems to be closely related to the occurrence of various diseases. In this study, through bioinformatics analysis, the expression and function of disulfidptosis-related genes (DRGs) in Alzheimer's disease were explored.

Methods

Differential analysis was performed on the gene expression matrix of AD, and the intersection of differentially expressed genes and disulfidptosis-related genes in AD was obtained. Hub genes were further screened using multiple machine learning methods, and a predictive model was constructed. Finally, 97 AD samples were divided into two subgroups based on hub genes.

Results

In this study, a total of 22 overlapping genes were identified, and 7 hub genes were further obtained through machine learning, including MYH9, IQGAP1, ACTN4, DSTN, ACTB, MYL6, and GYS1. Furthermore, the diagnostic capability was validated using external datasets and clinical samples. Based on these genes, a predictive model was constructed, with a large area under the curve (AUC = 0.8847), and the AUCs of the two external validation datasets were also higher than 0.7, indicating the high accuracy of the predictive model. Using unsupervised clustering based on hub genes, 97 AD samples were divided into Cluster1 (n = 24) and Cluster2 (n = 73), with most hub genes expressed at higher levels in Cluster2. Immune infiltration analysis revealed that Cluster2 had a higher level of immune infiltration and immune scores.

Conclusion

A close association between disulfidptosis and Alzheimer's disease was discovered in this study, and a predictive model was established to assess the risk of disulfidptosis subtype in AD patients. This study provides new perspectives for exploring biomarkers and potential therapeutic targets for Alzheimer's disease.

Asiaticoside Mitigates Alzheimer's Disease Pathology by Attenuating Inflammation and Enhancing Synaptic Function

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a prevalent neurodegenerative disorder, hallmarked by the accumulation of amyloid-β (Aβ) plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. Due to the uncertainty of the pathogenesis of AD, strategies aimed at suppressing neuroinflammation and fostering synaptic repair are eagerly sought. Asiaticoside (AS), a natural triterpenoid derivative derived from Centella asiatica, is known for its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and wound-healing properties; however, its neuroprotective function in AD remains unclear. Our current study reveals that AS, when administered (40 mg/kg) in vivo, can mitigate cognitive dysfunction and attenuate neuroinflammation by inhibiting the activation of microglia and proinflammatory factors in Aβ1-42-induced AD mice. Further mechanistic investigation suggests that AS may ameliorate cognitive impairment by inhibiting the activation of the p38 MAPK pathway and promoting synaptic repair. Our findings propose that AS could be a promising candidate for AD treatment, offering neuroinflammation inhibition and enhancement of synaptic function.

Ethnoveterinary practises of medicinal plants used for the treatment of different cattle diseases: A case study in East Khasi Hill district of Meghalaya, North East India

Introduction

For generations, the inhabitants of Meghalaya have relied on medicinal plants to maintain the health of their livestock and treat various illnesses that may afflict their animals. Due to the lack of survey for use and documentation, these plants have never been undertaken. Therefore, it is imperative to explore the diversity, utilization, and phytochemical profile of these plants and quantitatively analyse the data to identify important medicinal plants. By doing so, we can better understand the potential of these plants for developing novel drugs.

Methods

Frequent field trips were made for the collection of ethnoveterinary data of medicinal plants from local animal-keepers, traditional healers (THs) and inhabitants of different age groups. This information was gathered through semi-structured interviews, individual discussions, direct field-use observation, and questionnaires. A total of 52 informants (35 females and 17 males) were interviewed from seven rural villages and the information obtained from them were quantitatively analysed using the informant consensus factor (ICF), and fidelity level (FL). Additionally, for each documented plant, available published literature was extensively surveyed to identify the presence of bioactive chemical compounds responsible for their therapeutic effects.

Results

During the present study, a total 96 plants, distributed into 87 genera and 43 families were identified and recorded for their use in ethnoveterinary practices against more than 25 diseases. Out of the recorded plant species, the Fabaceae family was found to be the most dominant with seven species, followed by Poaceae and Lamiaceae with six species each, and Moraceae with five species. The leaves (50.00%) and seeds (12.50%) were the most frequently used plant parts, while the paste (30 species) was the common mode of application. Aegle marmelos Correa exhibited a fidelity level (FL) of 100% for indigestion, while Tagetes erecta L. had a fidelity level of 94.11% for wound treatment, making them the most promising candidates for further study. The highest FIC value of 1.00 was recorded for the treatment of neurological disorder (1.00), followed by foot and mouth disease (FIC 0.91), which depicted that some species were frequently utilized to treat multiple livestock ailments.

Conclusion

The study presents trustworthy information about medicinal plants and their associated indigenous ethnoveterinary knowledge. It has been scientifically proven that these plants contain bioactive compounds responsible for their therapeutic properties. However, this knowledge is in danger of being lost due to factors like socioeconomic changes, environmental and technological alterations, and lack of interest from younger generations. Therefore, it is essential to document this empirical folklore knowledge systematically and take measures to protect and conserve it.

Transcriptome analysis identifies the role of Class I histone deacetylase in Alzheimer's disease

Epigenetics modification is a process that does not change the sequence of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) in disease progression but can alter the genetic expression of the brain in Alzheimer's disease (AD). In this study, we deployed the weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) to explore the role of Class I histone deacetylases (HDACs) in AD, which included HDAC1, HDAC2, HDAC3, and HDAC8. The aim of the study was to find how Class I HDACs affected AD pathology by analyzing the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) microarray datasets GSE33000. We found that HDAC1 and HDAC8 were more highly expressed in the cortex of AD patients than in Controls, while HDAC2 and HDAC3 were lower expressed. By WGCNA analysis, we found the blue module was associated with HDAC1 and HDAC8, and the turquoise module was related to HDAC2 and HDAC3. Functional enrichment analysis revealed that the Wnt signaling pathway and synaptic plasticity played an important role in the modification of HDAC1 and HDAC8 while gap junction and cell-cell junction were involved in the regulation of HDAC2 and HDAC3 in the disease progression of AD. By Receiver Operating Characteristics (ROC) analysis, we concluded that HDAC1 might be the most probable diagnostic biomarker of Class I HDACs for AD. Our study provided a comprehensive understanding of Class I HDACs and provided new insight into the function of HDAC1 in AD disease progression.

Iron metabolism: An emerging therapeutic target underlying the anti-Alzheimer's disease effect of ginseng

Finding neuroprotective drugs with fewer side effects and more efficacy has become a major problem as the global prevalence of Alzheimer's disease (AD) rises. Natural drugs have risen to prominence as potential medication candidates. Ginseng has a long history of use in China, and it has a wide range of pharmacological actions that can help with neurological issues. Iron loaded in the brain has been linked to AD pathogenesis. We reviewed the regulation of iron metabolism and its studies in AD and explored how ginseng might regulate iron metabolism and prevent or treat AD. Researchers utilized network pharmacology analysis to identify key factive components of ginseng that protect against AD by regulating ferroptosis. Ginseng and its active ingredients may benefit AD by regulating iron metabolism and targeting ferroptosis genes to inhibit the ferroptosis process. The results present new ideas for ginseng pharmacological studies and initiatives for further research into AD-related drugs. To provide comprehensive information on the neuroprotective use of ginseng to modulate iron metabolism, reveal its potential to treat AD, and provide insights for future research opportunities.

Interleukin-17A modulates retinal inflammation by regulating microglial activation via the p38 MAPK pathway in experimental glaucoma neuropathy

As a prototypical member of the IL-17 family, interleukin-17A (IL-17A) has received increasing attentions for its potent proinflammatory role as well as potential to be a key therapeutic target in human autoimmune inflammatory diseases; however, its roles in other pathological scenarios like neuroinflammations are not fully elucidated yet but appear essentially correlating and promising. Glaucoma is the leading cause of irreversible blindness with complicated pathogenesis still to be understood, where neuroinflammation was reported to be critically involved in its both initiation and progression. Whether IL-17A takes part in the pathogenesis of glaucoma through interfering neuroinflammation due to its potent proinflammatory effect is still unknown. In the present study, we investigated the role of IL-17A in the pathological process of glaucoma neuropathy as well as its relationship with the predominant immune inflammation mediator microglia in retina, trying to elucidate the underlying mechanisms from the view of inflammation modulation. In our study, RNA sequencing was performed for the retinas of chronic ocular hypertension (COH) and control mice. Western blot, RT-PCR, immunofluorescence, and ELISA were used to evaluate the microglial activation and proinflammatory cytokines release at conditioned levels of IL-17A, along with assessment of optic nerve integrity including retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) counting, axonal neurofilament quantification, and flash visual-evoked potential (F-VEP) examination. And the possibly involved signaling pathways were screened out to go through further validation in scenarios with conditioned IL-17A. Subsequently, IL-17A was found to be significantly upregulated in COH retina. Furthermore, suppression of IL-17A effectively diminished the loss of RGCs, improved axonal quality, and F-VEP performance in COH mice. Mechanistically, IL-17A promoted microglial activation and proinflammatory cytokines release along with enhanced phenotypic conversion of activated microglia to M2-type in early stage and to M1-type in late stage in glaucomatous retinas. Microglia elimination decreased the proinflammatory factors secretion, enhanced the RGCs survival and axonal quality mediated by IL-17A. Furthermore, IL-17A-induced the overactivation of microglia in glaucomatous condition was alleviated after blocking the p38 MAPK pathway. Taken together, IL-17A is involved in the regulation of retinal immune response and RGCs cell death in experimental glaucoma by essentially promoting retinal microglial activation via p38 MAPK signaling pathway. IL-17A dynamically regulates the phenotypic conversion of retinal microglia in experimental glaucoma partly depending on the duration of elevated intraocular pressure. Suppression of IL-17A contributes to alleviate glaucoma neuropathy and exhibits promising potential as an innovative target for therapeutic strategy in glaucoma.

Glucocorticoids improve the balance of M1/M2 macrophage polarization in experimental autoimmune uveitis through the P38MAPK-MEF2C axis

Uveitis is a common ocular disease that can induce serious complications and sequelae. It is one of the major causes of blindness. Currently, mounting evidence suggests that glucocorticoids (GCs) can suppress ocular inflammation and promote the healing of damaged ocular tissues, but the underlying mechanism remains unclear. The present study aimed to elucidate the mechanism by which GCs modulate the homeostasis of M1/M2 macrophage polarization in experimental autoimmune uveitis (EAU) through the p38MAPK-MEF2C axis. Female Lewis rats were randomly divided into four groups: a normal control (NC) group, an EAU group, an EAU + glucocorticoid (EAU + GC) group, and an EAU + p38MAPK inhibitor (EAU + SB) group. The EAU model was induced in EAU, EAU + GC, and EAU + SB groups, followed by the treatments of normal saline, GC (predisione), and SB203580, respectively. The findings demonstrated that the rats in GC and SB groups had much less ocular inflammation, and the clinical and pathological scores decreased. Further research revealed that GC and SB treatment could inhibit iNOS and CD86 expression while promoting Arg-1 and CD206 secretion in IRBP-induced uveitis rats. Moreover, we found that the role of GC was similar to the results of SB203580, but the role of GC was masked by the C16-PAF (a p38MAPK activator) treatment. Molecular docking and western blot results confirmed that GC's therapeutic action against EAU is mediated via the p38MAPK-MEF2C axis. It regulates macrophage polarization by encouraging M1 to M2 transition and releasing anti-inflammatory factors.

Inhibition of p38α MAPK restores neuronal p38γ MAPK and ameliorates synaptic degeneration in a mouse model of DLB/PD

Alterations in the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) play an important role in the pathogenesis of dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) and Parkinson's disease (PD). Activation of the p38α MAPK isoform and mislocalization of the p38γ MAPK isoform are associated with neuroinflammation and synaptic degeneration in DLB and PD. Therefore, we hypothesized that p38α might be associated with neuronal p38γ distribution and synaptic dysfunction in these diseases. To test this hypothesis, we treated in vitro cellular and in vivo mouse models of DLB/PD with SKF-86002, a compound that attenuates inflammation by inhibiting p38α/β, and then investigated the effects of this compound on p38γ and neurodegenerative pathology. We found that inhibition of p38α reduced neuroinflammation and ameliorated synaptic, neurodegenerative, and motor behavioral deficits in transgenic mice overexpressing human α-synuclein. Moreover, treatment with SKF-86002 promoted the redistribution of p38γ to synapses and reduced the accumulation of α-synuclein in mice overexpressing human α-synuclein. Supporting the potential value of targeting p38 in DLB/PD, we found that SKF-86002 promoted the redistribution of p38γ in neurons differentiated from iPS cells derived from patients with familial PD (carrying the A53T α-synuclein mutation) and healthy controls. Treatment with SKF-86002 ameliorated α-synuclein-induced neurodegeneration in these neurons only when microglia were pretreated with this compound. However, direct treatment of neurons with SKF-86002 did not affect α-synuclein-induced neurotoxicity, suggesting that SKF-86002 treatment inhibits α-synuclein-induced neurotoxicity mediated by microglia. These findings provide a mechanistic connection between p38α and p38γ as well as a rationale for targeting this pathway in DLB/PD.

Tau pathology epigenetically remodels the neuron-glial cross-talk in Alzheimer's disease

The neuron-glia cross-talk is critical to brain homeostasis and is particularly affected by neurodegenerative diseases. How neurons manipulate the neuron-astrocyte interaction under pathological conditions, such as hyperphosphorylated tau, a pathological hallmark in Alzheimer's disease (AD), remains elusive. In this study, we identified excessively elevated neuronal expression of adenosine receptor 1 (Adora1 or A1R) in 3×Tg mice, MAPT P301L (rTg4510) mice, patients with AD, and patient-derived neurons. The up-regulation of A1R was found to be tau pathology dependent and posttranscriptionally regulated by Mef2c via miR-133a-3p. Rebuilding the miR-133a-3p/A1R signal effectively rescued synaptic and memory impairments in AD mice. Furthermore, neuronal A1R promoted the release of lipocalin 2 (Lcn2) and resulted in astrocyte activation. Last, silencing neuronal Lcn2 in AD mice ameliorated astrocyte activation and restored synaptic plasticity and learning/memory. Our findings reveal that the tau pathology remodels neuron-glial cross-talk and promotes neurodegenerative progression. Approaches targeting A1R and modulating this signaling pathway might be a potential therapeutic strategy for AD.

Porphyromonas gingivalis-induced periodontitis could contribute to cognitive impairment in Sprague–Dawley rats via the P38 MAPK signaling pathway

Background

Periodontitis is one of the most common oral diseases and has been shown to be a risk factor for systemic diseases. Our aim was to investigate the relationship between periodontitis and cognitive impairment and to explore the role of the P38 MAPK signaling pathway in this process.

Methods

We established a periodontitis model by ligating the first molars of SD rats with silk thread and injecting Porphyromonas gingivalis (P. gingivalis) or P. gingivalis plus the P38 MAPK inhibitor SB203580 at the same time for ten weeks. We assessed alveolar bone resorption and spatial learning and memory using microcomputed tomography and the Morris water maze test, respectively. We used transcriptome sequencing to explore the genetic differences between the groups. The gingival tissue, peripheral blood and hippocampal tissue were assessed for the cytokines TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8 and C reactive protein (CRP) with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT–PCR). We observed the presence of P. gingivalis in the hippocampus of rats by paraffin-fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH). We determined the activation of microglia by immunofluorescence. Finally, Western blot analysis was employed to determine the expression of amyloid precursor protein (APP), β-site APP-cleaving enzyme 1 (BACE1) and P38MAPK pathway activation.

Results

We demonstrated that silk ligature-induced periodontitis plus injection of P. gingivalis into subgingival tissue could lead to memory and cognitive impairment. Transcriptome sequencing results suggested that there were neurodegenerative diseases in the P. gingivalis group, and the MWM test showed that periodontitis reduced the spatial learning and memory ability of mild cognitive impairment (MCI) model rats. We found high levels of inflammatory factors (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-8) and CRP in the gingiva, peripheral blood and hippocampus, and the expression of APP and BACE1 was upregulated, as was the P38 MAPK pathway activation. Activated microglia and the presence of P. gingivalis were also found in the hippocampus. P38 MAPK inhibitors mitigated all of these changes.

Conclusion

Our findings strongly suggest that topical application of P. gingivalis increases the inflammatory burden in the peripheral and central nervous systems (CNS) and that neuroinflammation induced by activation of P38 MAPK leads to impaired learning and memory in SD rats. It can also modulate APP processing. Therefore, P38 MAPK may serve as a linking pathway between periodontitis and cognitive impairment.

Chemical Knockdown of Phosphorylated p38 Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase (MAPK) as a Novel Approach for the Treatment of Alzheimer's Disease

Targeted protein degradation (TPD) provides unique advantages over gene knockdown in that it can induce selective degradation of disease-associated proteins attributed to pathological mutations or aberrant post-translational modifications (PTMs). Herein, we report a protein degrader, PRZ-18002, that selectively binds to an active form of p38 MAPK. PRZ-18002 induces degradation of phosphorylated p38 MAPK (p-p38) and a phosphomimetic mutant of p38 MAPK in a proteasome-dependent manner. Given that the activation of p38 MAPK plays pivotal roles in the pathophysiology of Alzheimer's disease (AD), selective degradation of p-p38 may provide an attractive therapeutic option for the treatment of AD. In the 5xFAD transgenic mice model of AD, intranasal treatment of PRZ-18002 reduces p-p38 levels and alleviates microglia activation and amyloid beta (Aβ) deposition, leading to subsequent improvement of spatial learning and memory. Collectively, our findings suggest that PRZ-18002 ameliorates AD pathophysiology via selective degradation of p-p38, highlighting a novel therapeutic TPD modality that targets a specific PTM to induce selective degradation of neurodegenerative disease-associated protein.

In vitro and in silico studies of 7'',8''-buddlenol D anti-inflammatory lignans from Carallia brachiata as p38 MAP kinase inhibitors

Excessive macrophage activation induces the release of high levels of inflammatory mediators which not only amplify chronic inflammation and degenerative diseases but also exacerbate fever and retard wound healing. To identify anti-inflammatory molecules, we examined Carallia brachiata-a medicinal terrestrial plant from Rhizophoraceae. Furofuran lignans [(-)-(7''R,8''S)-buddlenol D (1) and (-)-(7''S,8''S)-buddlenol D (2)] isolated from the stem and bark inhibited nitric oxide (half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀): 9.25 ± 2.69 and 8.43 ± 1.20 micromolar for 1 and 2, respectively) and prostaglandin E₂ (IC₅₀: 6.15 ± 0.39 and 5.70 ± 0.97 micromolar for 1 and 2, respectively) productions in lipopolysaccharide-induced RAW264.7 cells. From western blotting, 1 and 2 suppressed LPS-induced inducible nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase-2 expression in a dose-dependent manner (0.3-30 micromolar). Moreover, analysis of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway showed decreased p38 phosphorylation levels in 1- and 2-treated cells, while phosphorylated ERK1/2 and JNK levels were unaffected. This discovery agreed with in silico studies which suggested 1 and 2 bound to the ATP-binding site in p38-alpha MAPK based on predicted binding affinity and intermolecular interaction docking. In summary, 7'',8''-buddlenol D epimers demonstrated anti-inflammatory activities via p38 MAPK inhibition and may be used as viable anti-inflammatory therapies.

Pre exposure to enriched environment alleviates brain injury after ischemia-reperfusion by inhibiting p38MAPK/STAT1 pathway

BACKGROUND

Stroke is one of the major diseases that endangers human health. It is widely reported that enriched environment (EE) can improve the neurological function in different brain injury models. Recently, relevant researches have indicated that MAPK pathway is closely related to the inflammatory response in nervous system related diseases. However, whether pre exposure to EE (EE pretreatment) has a preventive effect, and its mechanism are not clear. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the possible benefits and related mechanisms of EE in preventing brain injury after acute ischemia-reperfusion.

METHODS

Adult Sprague Dawley rats were kept in enriched or standardized environments for 21 days. Then the middle cerebral artery of rats was occluded for one hour and 30 min, and then reperfusion was performed. Then their neurological deficit score was evaluated. Cerebral edema, along with ELISA and protein quantities of p38MAPK, JNK, ERK, IL-1β, TNF-α, and co-localization of Iba1 were assessed. Changes in neuroinflammation and apoptosis were also detected in the penumbra cortex.

RESULTS

Our research showed that EE pretreatment significantly alleviated acute cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury in rats. Including the reduction of brain edema and apoptosis, and the improvement of neurological scores. In addition, the protein level of p38MAPK was significantly down regulated in EE pretreatment group, and the downstream protein STAT1 had the same trend. In addition, immunofluorescence results showed that Iba1 in EE pretreatment group decreased, the ELISA results showed that the classical proinflammatory cytokines increased significantly, while anti-inflammatory cytokines in EE pretreatment group increased, and the same results were obtained by Western blot analysis.

CONCLUSION

On the whole, our research demonstrated that EE pretreatment can have a protective effect on the organism by inhibiting the p38 MAPK/STAT1 pathway. Thus, EE can be one of the most promising means of disease prevention. Secondly, p38MAPK/STAT1 pathway may be a latent target for the prevention of acute ischemic stroke.

MicroRNAs and MAPKs: Evidence of These Molecular Interactions in Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder known to be the leading cause of dementia worldwide. Many microRNAs (miRNAs) were found deregulated in the brain or blood of AD patients, suggesting a possible key role in different stages of neurodegeneration. In particular, mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK) signaling can be impaired by miRNA dysregulation during AD. Indeed, the aberrant MAPK pathway may facilitate the development of amyloid-beta (Aβ) and Tau pathology, oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, and brain cell death. The aim of this review was to describe the molecular interactions between miRNAs and MAPKs during AD pathogenesis by selecting evidence from experimental AD models. Publications ranging from 2010 to 2023 were considered, based on PubMed and Web of Science databases. According to obtained data, several miRNA deregulations may regulate MAPK signaling in different stages of AD and conversely. Moreover, overexpressing or silencing miRNAs involved in MAPK regulation was seen to improve cognitive deficits in AD animal models. In particular, miR-132 is of particular interest due to its neuroprotective functions by inhibiting Aβ and Tau depositions, as well as oxidative stress, through ERK/MAPK1 signaling modulation. However, further investigations are required to confirm and implement these promising results.

Antioxidant and Antineuroinflammatory Mechanisms of Kaempferol-3-O-β-d-Glucuronate on Lipopolysaccharide-Stimulated BV2 Microglial Cells through the Nrf2/HO-1 Signaling Cascade and MAPK/NF-κB Pathway

Aglycone- and glycoside-derived forms of flavonoids exist broadly in plants and foods such as fruits, vegetables, and peanuts. However, most studies focus on the bioavailability of flavonoid aglycone rather than its glycosylated form. Kaempferol-3-O-β-d-glucuronate (K3G) is a natural flavonoid glycoside obtained from various plants that have several biological activities, including antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. However, the molecular mechanism related to the antioxidant and antineuroinflammatory activity of K3G has not yet been demonstrated. The present study was designed to demonstrate the antioxidant and antineuroinflammatory effect of K3G against lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated BV2 microglial cells and to evaluate the underlying mechanism. Cell viability was determined by MTT assay. The inhibition rate of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the production of pro-inflammatory mediators and cytokines were measured by DCF-DA assay, Griess assay, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and western blotting. K3G inhibited the LPS-induced release of nitric oxide, interleukin (IL)-6, and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) as well as the expression of prostaglandin E synthase 2. Additionally, K3G reduced the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), and nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) related proteins. Mechanistic studies found that K3G downregulated phosphorylated mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) and upregulated the Nrf2/HO-1 signaling cascade. In this study, we demonstrated the effects of K3G on antineuroinflammation by inactivating phosphorylation of MPAKs and on antioxidants by upregulating the Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathway through decreasing ROS in LPS-stimulated BV2 cells.