Analysis of Floral Volatile Components and Antioxidant Activity of Different Varieties of Chrysanthemum morifolium

Advanced analytical techniques for authenticity identification and quality evaluation in Essential oils: A review

Essential oils (EO), secondary metabolites of plants are fragrant oily liquids with antibacterial, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, anti-allergic, and antioxidant effects. They are widely applied in food, medicine, cosmetics, and other fields. However, the quality of EOs remain uncertain owing to their high volatility and susceptibility to oxidation, influenced by factors such as the harvesting season, extraction, and separation techniques. Additionally, the huge economic value of EOs has led to a market marked by widespread and varied adulteration, making the assessment of their quality challenging. Therefore, developing simple, quick, and effective identification techniques for EOs is essential. This review comprehensively summarizes the techniques for assessing EO quality and identifying adulteration. It covers sensory evaluation, physical and chemical property evaluation, and chemical composition analysis, which are widely used and of great significance for the quality evaluation and adulteration detection of EOs.

Distinct Changes in Metabolic Profile and Sensory Quality with Different Varieties of Chrysanthemum (Juhua) Tea Measured by LC-MS-Based Untargeted Metabolomics and Electronic Tongue

Chrysanthemum tea, a typical health tea with the same origin as medicine and food, is famous for its unique health benefits and flavor. The taste and sensory quality of chrysanthemum (Juhua) tea are mainly determined by secondary metabolites. Therefore, the present research adopted untargeted metabolomics combined with an electronic tongue system to analyze the correlation between the metabolite profiles and taste characteristics of different varieties of chrysanthemum tea. The results of sensory evaluation showed that there were significant differences in the sensory qualities of five different varieties of chrysanthemum tea, especially bitterness and astringency. The results of principal component analysis (PCA) indicated that there were significant metabolic differences among the five chrysanthemum teas. A total of 1775 metabolites were identified by using untargeted metabolomics based on UPLC-Q-TOF/MS analysis. According to the variable importance in projection (VIP) values of the orthogonal projections to latent structures discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA), 143 VIP metabolites were found to be responsible for metabolic changes between Huangju and Jinsi Huangju tea; among them, 13 metabolites were identified as the key metabolites of the differences in sensory quality between them. Kaempferol, luteolin, genistein, and some quinic acid derivatives were correlated with the "astringency" attributes. In contrast, l-(-)-3 phenyllactic acid and L-malic acid were found to be responsible for the "bitterness" and "umami" attributes in chrysanthemum tea. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway enrichment analysis showed that the flavonoid and flavonol biosynthesis pathways had important effects on the sensory quality of chrysanthemum tea. These findings provide the theoretical basis for understanding the characteristic metabolites that contribute to the distinctive sensory qualities of chrysanthemum tea.

Quality consistency evaluation of chemical composition and pharmacology of Shaoyao-Gancao decoction dispensing granules and traditional decoction

Dispensing granules of Chinese medicine (DGCM) have emerged as a more convenient alternative to traditional decoction (TD) of Chinese medicine, gaining popularity in recent years. However, the debate surrounding the consistency of DGCM compared to TD remains unresolved. In this study, three batches of Baishao and Gancao DGCM were obtained from manufacturers A, B, and C, and 15 batches of crude drugs were procured from hospital pharmacies for the preparation of dispensing granule decoction (DGD) and TD of Shaoyao-Gancao decoction (SGD). The HPLC-UV method was employed to determine the levels of gallic acid, paeoniflorin, albiflorin, liquiritin, liquiritin apioside, isoliquiritin apioside, isoliquiritin, glycyrrhizic acid, and isoliquiritigenin. The analgesic and antispasmodic effects were assessed using the hot plate and acetic acid writhing test in mice. To evaluate the consistency of chemical constituents and pharmacological effects between the two decoctions, the Criteria Importance Though Intercriteria Correlation (CRITIC) method combined with chemometrics was employed. Grey relation analysis (GRA) was used to assess the comprehensive quality consistency of the two decoctions. The CRITIC results revealed certain differences in chemical constituents and pharmacological effects between the selected DGCM and TD. Notably, DGD-A/C exhibited a significant difference from TD (p > 0.05), whereas DGD-B demonstrated no significant difference from TD (p > 0.05). The GRA analysis demonstrated that the overall quality consistency between DGD-B and TD was the highest among the three manufacturers. This study presents a method for evaluating the quality consistency of DGCM and TD of SGD, offering novel insights into the evaluation of consistency between DGCM and TD.

Phytochemicals, therapeutic benefits and applications of chrysanthemum flower: A review

Chrysanthemum is a flowering plant belonging to a genus of the dicotyledonous herbaceous annual flowering plant of the Asteraceae (Compositae) family. It is a perpetual flowering plant, mostly cultivated for medicinal purposes; generally, used in popular drinks due to its aroma and flavor. It is primarily cultivated in China, Japan, Europe, and United States. These flowers were extensively used in various healthcare systems and for treating various diseases. Chrysanthemum flowers are rich in phenolic compounds and exhibit strong properties including antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, anti-allergic, anti-obesity, immune regulation, hepatoprotective, and nephroprotective activities. The main aim of the present review was to investigate the nutritional profile, phytochemistry, and biological activities of flowers of different Chrysanthemum species. Also, a critical discussion of the diverse metabolites or bioactive constituents of the Chrysanthemum flowers is highlighted in the present review. Moreover, the flower extracts of Chrysanthemum have been assessed to possess a rich phytochemical profile, including compounds such as cyanidin-3-O-(6″-O-malonyl) glucoside, delphinidin 3-O-(6" -O-malonyl) glucoside-3', rutin, quercetin, isorhamnetin, rutinoside, and others. These profiles exhibit potential health benefits, leading to their utilization in the production of supplementary food products and pharmaceutical drugs within the industry. However, more comprehensive research studies/investigations are still needed to further discover the potential benefits for human and animal utilization.

Identification of Floral Volatile Components and Expression Analysis of Controlling Gene in Paeonia ostii 'Fengdan' under Different Cultivation Conditions

In order to explore the release rule of floral volatile substances and the diurnal variation of different flower development stages of Paeonia ostii 'Fengdan' in potted and ground-planted conditions, dynamic headspace adsorption combined with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry(GC-MS) was used to analyze the dynamic changes in floral volatile components and contents. Quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) was used to analyze changes in flower fragrance-regulating genes PsPAL, PsTPSs, and PsbHLH at different flower development stages and a daily change process at the full-blooming stage. The results show that there were differences in aroma components and contents of Paeonia ostii 'Fengdan' at different flower development stages and different time quantum of every day. There were 25 and 28 aroma components identified in 7 flower development stages of tree peonies planted in pots and in the field, respectively, and 23 and 22 aroma components identified at different time quantum of the day, of which the largest and highest content was alkanes. The main characteristic aroma substances were (E)-β-ocimene, 1,3,5-trimethoxybenzene, 2,4-di-tert-butylphenol, methyl jasmonate, nerol, and cinnamyl alcohol; released amounts of the abovementioned substances varied depending on the development stage and the time of the day. The expression of flower fragrance-controlling genes (PsPAL, PsTPSs, and PsbHLH) in tree peonies varied greatly in different conditions. The results of this study provide a valuable resource to investigate floral fragrance formation in tree peonies.

Nano-vesicular carriers for bioactive compounds and their applications in food formulations

The most commonly used vesicular systems in the food industry include liposomes, niosomes, phytosomes, or transfersomes. This review focuses on showing how nano-vesicular carriers (NVCs) amend the properties of bioactive compounds (bioactives), making them suitable for food applications, especially functional foods. In this research, we elaborate on the question of whether bioactive-loaded NVCs affect various food aspects such as their antioxidant capacity, or sensory properties. This review also shows how NVCs improve the long-term release profile of bioactives during storage and at different pH values. Besides, the refinement of digestibility and bioaccessibility of diverse bioactives through NVCs in the gastrointestinal tract is elucidated. NVCs allow for stable vesicle formation (e.g. from anthocyanins) which reduces their cytotoxicity and proliferation of cancer cells, prolongs the release bioactives (e.g. d-limonene) with no critical burst, reduces the biofilm formation capacity of both Gram-positive/negative strains and their biofilm gene expression is down-regulated (in the case of tannic acid), low oxidation (e.g. iron) is endured when exposed to simulated gastric fluid, and unpleasant smell and taste are masked (in case of omega-3 fatty acids). After the incorporation of bioactive-loaded NVCs into food products, their antioxidant capacity is enhanced, maintaining high encapsulation efficiency and enduring pasteurization conditions, and they are not distinguished from control samples in sensory evaluation despite the reverse situation about free bioactives.

Effects of Se-enriched Chrysanthemum morifolium on lifespan and antioxidant defense-related gene expression of Drosophila melanogaster model

Chrysanthemum morifolium is a well-known edible medicinal plant in Asia and some other regions. Content of selenium in Se-enriched C. morifolium (SeCM) is significantly higher than that in traditional C. morifolium (non-Se-enriched C. morifolium, TCM). In order to understand health effects of SeCM, its chemical composition, lifespan-prolonging activities, and impacts on antioxidant defense-related gene expressions of model organism D. melanogaster were systematically studied. A total of eight phenols, including luteolin-7-O-glucoside, linarin, luteolin, apigenin, diosmetin, acacetin, 3-caffeoylquinic acid and 4,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid, were identified in SeCM extract. Compared with TCM, SeCM exhibited superior antioxidant properties. Intake of SeCM dramatically reduced malondialdehyde level and increased activities of endogenous antioxidant enzymes in fruit flies. SeCM was able to upregulate gene expressions of Cu/Zn-superoxide dismutase, Mn-superoxide dismutase and hydrogen peroxide catalase, and extend lifespans of fruit flies. Comparatively high antioxidant capacities and lifespan-prolonging activities of SeCM might be attributed to its abundant phenols and selenium, which probably ameliorated accumulation of free radicals and susceptibility to oxidative stress. These findings provide clues on further exploitation and utilization of Se-enriched C. morifolium. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Chrysanthemum morifolium has been used for nutraceutical and curative purposes in China for thousands of years. Se-enriched C. morifolium typically contains more selenium than traditional C. morifolium, and is widely consumed in Asia and some other regions. Selenium is an essential micronutrient for humans, and selenium deficiency may result in several diseases such as myocardial infarction. SeCM is one of important selenium supplements. In this study, SeCM was found to upregulate gene expressions of Cu/Zn-superoxide dismutase, Mn-superoxide dismutase, and hydrogen peroxide catalase, and extend lifespans of experimental animals. These results provide supporting information for developing SeCM-based functional foods with distinct health benefits.

Genome-Wide Identification, Characterization, and Expression Analysis of CHS Gene Family Members in Chrysanthemum nankingense

The chalcone synthase (CHS) gene family catalyzes the first committed step in the biosynthesis of flavonoids and plays key roles in various biological processes in plants. However, systematic studies of the CHS gene family in chrysanthemum remain unknown to date. In this study, 16 CnCHS genes were identified by searching the complete genome sequence of Chrysanthemum nankingense. Most contained two exons and one intron with Chal-sti-synt_N and Chal-sti-synt_C domains. A phylogenetic tree of CnCHSs indicated divergence into three major groups, including I, II, and III. Analyses of the genes and promoters of these genes indicated that there are many cis-acting elements that respond to light, phytohormones, stress, and developmental stages. The CnCHS genes have extensive patterns of expression in various tissues and stages of flower development. Tandemly repeated and segmental repeat genes were expressed at higher levels in different tissues than most of the CnCHS genes that have been identified. CnCHS10 is expressed at higher levels in various flower organs than in vegetative tissues, particularly in disc floret petals and pistils. Our study provides valuable information for the systematic analysis of the CnCHS gene family, which also contributes to further research on flavonoid synthesis and petal colors of chrysanthemum.

From Plant to Yeast-Advances in Biosynthesis of Artemisinin

Malaria is a life-threatening disease. Artemisinin-based combination therapy (ACT) is the preferred choice for malaria treatment recommended by the World Health Organization. At present, the main source of artemisinin is extracted from Artemisia annua; however, the artemisinin content in A. annua is only 0.1-1%, which cannot meet global demand. Meanwhile, the chemical synthesis of artemisinin has disadvantages such as complicated steps, high cost and low yield. Therefore, the application of the synthetic biology approach to produce artemisinin in vivo has magnificent prospects. In this review, the biosynthesis pathway of artemisinin was summarized. Then we discussed the advances in the heterologous biosynthesis of artemisinin using microorganisms (Escherichia coli and Saccharomyces cerevisiae) as chassis cells. With yeast as the cell factory, the production of artemisinin was transferred from plant to yeast. Through the optimization of the fermentation process, the yield of artemisinic acid reached 25 g/L, thereby producing the semi-synthesis of artemisinin. Moreover, we reviewed the genetic engineering in A. annua to improve the artemisinin content, which included overexpressing artemisinin biosynthesis pathway genes, blocking key genes in competitive pathways, and regulating the expression of transcription factors related to artemisinin biosynthesis. Finally, the research progress of artemisinin production in other plants (Nicotiana, Physcomitrella, etc.) was discussed. The current advances in artemisinin biosynthesis may help lay the foundation for the remarkable up-regulation of artemisinin production in A. annua through gene editing or molecular design breeding in the future.

Medicinal and edible plants in the treatment of dyslipidemia: advances and prospects

Dyslipidemia is an independent risk factor of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), which lead to the high mortality, disability, and medical expenses in the worldwide. Based on the previous researches, the improvement of dyslipidemia could efficiently prevent the occurrence and progress of cardiovascular diseases. Medicinal and edible plants (MEPs) are the characteristics of Chinese medicine, and could be employed for the disease treatment and health care mostly due to their homology of medicine and food. Compared to the lipid-lowering drugs with many adverse effects, such as rhabdomyolysis and impaired liver function, MEPs exhibit the great potential in the treatment of dyslipidemia with high efficiency, good tolerance and commercial value. In this review, we would like to introduce 20 kinds of MEPs with lipid-lowering effect in the following aspects, including the source, function, active component, target and underlying mechanism, which may provide inspiration for the development of new prescription, functional food and complementary therapy for dyslipidemia.

The genus Chrysanthemum: Phylogeny, biodiversity, phytometabolites, and chemodiversity

The ecologically and economically important genus Chrysanthemum contains around 40 species and many hybrids and cultivars. The dried capitulum of Chrysanthemum morifolium (CM) Ramat. Tzvel, i.e., Flos Chrysanthemi, is frequently used in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) and folk medicine for at least 2,200 years. It has also been a popular tea beverage for about 2,000 years since Han Dynasty in China. However, the origin of different cultivars of CM and the phylogenetic relationship between Chrysanthemum and related Asteraceae genera are still elusive, and there is a lack of comprehensive review about the association between biodiversity and chemodiversity of Chrysanthemum. This article aims to provide a synthetic summary of the phylogeny, biodiversity, phytometabolites and chemodiversity of Chrysanthemum and related taxonomic groups, focusing on CM and its wild relatives. Based on extensive literature review and in light of the medicinal value of chrysanthemum, we give some suggestions for its relationship with some genera/species and future applications. Mining chemodiversity from biodiversity of Chrysanthemum containing subtribe Artemisiinae, as well as mining therapeutic efficacy and other utilities from chemodiversity/biodiversity, is closely related with sustainable conservation and utilization of Artemisiinae resources. There were eight main cultivars of Flos Chrysanthemi, i.e., Hangju, Boju, Gongju, Chuju, Huaiju, Jiju, Chuanju and Qiju, which differ in geographical origins and processing methods. Different CM cultivars originated from various hybridizations between multiple wild species. They mainly contained volatile oils, triterpenes, flavonoids, phenolic acids, polysaccharides, amino acids and other phytometabolites, which have the activities of antimicrobial, anti-viral, antioxidant, anti-aging, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and closely related taxonomic groups could also be useful as food, medicine and tea. Despite some progresses, the genetic/chemical relationships among varieties, species and relevant genera have yet to be clarified; therefore, the roles of pharmacophylogeny and omics technology are highlighted.

On-line screening of natural antioxidants and the antioxidant activity prediction for the extracts from flowers of Chrysanthemum morifolium ramat

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY RELEVANCE

Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. (Flos Chrysanthemi, FC) the most economically significant "food and drug dual-use" plants, with positive effects on relieving eye fatigue, and reduce internal heat, shows significant activities, such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and neuroprotective, as well as alleviating diabetes effects.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study was undertaken to a screening of natural antioxidants in five kinds of medicinal FC and development of an integrated quality control method based on the antioxidant activity.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A novel quality control method for FC was established by combining the on-line HPLC-DPPH, ESI-MS, and NIR spectra analysis. Firstly, the on-line HPLC-DPPH-MS system was employed to identify the antioxidants in FC extracts. Then, the relationship between the NIR spectra and antioxidant activities of FC samples was calibrated to evaluate the total antioxidant capacity of FC rapidly.

RESULTS

The established antioxidant activity-fingerprints contain both chemical information and antioxidant activity characteristics of FC. A total of 16 antioxidants were identified by on-line HPLC-ESI-MS analysis. The results of heat map analysis and cluster analysis showed that the classification method based on antioxidants in FC can be used to identify different cultivars of FC. The optimal pretreatment of the NIR spectra was determined to be row center (RC) 1st der + multiple-scatter correction (MSC) with an optimal LV value of 11. The developed spectral-antioxidant activity model had the excellent predictive ability and was successfully used to evaluate new batches of FC samples, where R_cal = 0.9445 and R_val = 0.8821.

CONCLUSIONS

This comprehensive strategy may prove to be a powerful technique for the rapid screening, identification, and activity prediction of antioxidants, which could be used for the quality control of FC, and can serve as reference for design of quality control of other herbs and foods samples.

Comprehensive Flavor Analysis of Volatile Components During the Vase Period of Cut Lily (Lilium spp. 'Manissa') Flowers by HS-SPME/GC-MS Combined With E-Nose Technology

Volatile compounds could affect the flavor and ornamental quality of cut flowers, but the flavor change occurring during the vase period of the cut flower is unclear. To clarify the dynamic changes during the vase period of cut lily (Lilium spp. 'Manissa') flowers, comprehensive flavor profiles were characterized by the electronic nose (E-nose) and headspace solid-phase microextraction gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (HS-SPME/GC-MS). The response value of sensor W2W was significantly higher than other sensors, and its response value reached the highest on day 4. A total of 59 volatiles were detected in cut lilies by HS-SPME/GC-MS, mainly including aldehydes, alcohols, and esters. There were 19 volatiles with odor activity values (OAVs) greater than 1. Floral and fruity aromas were stronger, followed by a pungent scent. Principal component analysis (PCA) and hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) could effectively discriminate lily samples derived from different vase times on the basis of E-nose and HS-SPME-GC-MS. In summary, our study investigates the flavor change profile and the diversity of volatile compounds during the vase period of cut lilies, and lilies on day 4 after harvest exhibited excellent aroma and flavor taking into consideration of the flavor intensity and diversity. This provided theoretical guidance for the assessment of scent volatiles and flavor quality during the vase period of cut lily flowers and will be helpful for the application of cut lilies during the postharvest process.

Exploring the Relationship between Trichome and Terpene Chemistry in Chrysanthemum

Chrysanthemum is a popular ornamental plant with a long history of cultivation. Both the leaf and flowerhead of Chrysanthemum are known to produce diverse secondary metabolites, particularly terpenoids. Here we aimed to determine the relationship between terpene chemistry and the trichome traits in Chrysanthemum. In our examination of three cultivars of C. morifilium and three accessions of C. indicum, all plants contained T-shaped trichomes and biseriate peltate glandular trichomes. The biseriate peltate glandular trichome contained two basal cells, two stalk cells, six secondary cells and a subcuticular space, while the non-glandular T-shaped trichome was only composed of stalk cells and elongated cells. Histochemical staining analysis indicated that the biseriate peltate glandular trichome contained terpenoids and lipid oil droplets but not the T-shaped trichome. Next, experiments were performed to determine the relationship between the accumulation and emission of the volatile terpenoids and the density of trichomes on the leaves and flowerheads in all six Chrysanthemum cultivars\accessions. A significant correlation was identified between the monoterpenoid and sesquiterpenoid content and the density of glandular trichomes on the leaves, with the correlation coefficients being 0.88, 0.86 and 0.90, respectively. In contrast, there was no significant correlation between the volatile terpenoid content and the density of T-shaped trichomes on the leaves. In flowerheads, a significant correlation was identified between the emission rate of terpenoids and the number of glandular trichomes on the disc florets, with a correlation coefficient of 0.95. Interestingly, the correlation between the density of glandular trichomes and concentrations of terpenoids was insignificant. In summary, the relationship between trichomes and terpenoid chemistry in Chrysanthemum is clearly established. Such knowledge may be helpful for breeding aromatic Chrysanthemum cultivars by modulating the trichome trait.

Biogeographic and metabolic studies support a glacial radiation hypothesis during Chrysanthemum evolution

Chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat.) is an economically important plant species growing worldwide. However, its origin, especially as revealed by biogeographic and metabolomics research, remains unclear. To understand the geographic distribution of species diversity and metabolomics in three genera (Chrysanthemum, Ajania, and Phaeostigma), geographic information systems and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry were used in 19, 15, and 4 species respectively. China and Japan were two potential panbiogeographic nodes and diverse hotspots of Chrysanthemum, with species richness ratios of 58.97 and 33.33%. We studied different species from two hotspots which in similar geographical environments had closer chemotaxonomic relationships under the same cultivation conditions based on a cluster of 30 secondary metabolites. The average distribution altitude (ADA) differed significantly among Chrysanthemum, Ajania, and Phaeostigma in which it was 1227.49, 2400.12, and 3760.53 m.a.s.l. respectively, and the presence/absence of ray florets (RF) was significantly correlated with ADA (-0.62). Mountain landform was an important contributor to global Chrysanthemum diversity, playing a key role in the divergence and distribution pattern of Chrysanthemum and its allies. The Hengduan Mountains-Qinling Mountains (HDQ) in China was a potential secondary radiation and evolution center of Chrysanthemum and its related genera in the world. During the Quaternary glacial-interglacial cycles, this region became their refuge, and they radiated and evolved from this center.

HPLC-FLD analysis of amino acids content in Chrysanthemum morifolium

Chrysanthemum morifolium (Asteraceae family) have long been used as a tonic, antioxidant, antipyretic, analgesic, sedative, antitumor, neuroprotector, hepatoprotector and cardioprotector agent. This species should be reconsidered as possible sources of many biocompounds, especially amino acids. Thus, the aim of this study was to validate the chromatographic method for detection of amino acids and their identification in flowers and leaves of Ch. morifolium of variant Pectoral. HPLC-FLD method was evaluated in terms of linearity, precision, repeatability, accuracy, LOD and LOQ. The calibration curves of all analytical standards of amino acids were linear (R2 > 0.99) over the range of 0.015–0.625 μmol/mL, the LODs and the LOQs were in the range of 0.001–0.096 µg/mL and 0.004–0.321 µg/mL, respectively. During the HPLC-FLD assay ten amino acids in free form and fifteen amino acids after hydrolysis in Ch. morifolium flowers were identified. Besides, twelve amino acids were detected in free form and fourteen amino acids after hydrolysis in Ch. morifolium leaves. The results of HPLC-FLD analysis showed that the predominant amino acid was L-proline in both types of herbal raw materials. Its total content was 31.67±0.02 μg/mg in Ch. morifolium flowers and 18.56±0.02 μg/mg in Ch. morifolium leaves. This phytochemical study confirms that flowers and leaves of Ch. morifolium (Pectoral) are rich sources of amino acids and can exhibit a wide range of pharmacological activities.

Rapid characterisation of xanthine oxidase inhibitors from the flowers of Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. Using metabolomics approach

INTRODUCTION

Hyperuricemia is the key risk factor for gout, in which the elevated uric acid is attributed to the oxidation of hypoxanthine and xanthine to uric acid by xanthine oxidase (XO). Adverse effects of the current treatments lead to an urgent need for safer and more effective alternative from natural resources.

OBJECTIVE

To compare the metabolite profile of Chrysanthemum morifolium flower fraction with that of its detannified fraction in relation to XO inhibitory activity using a rapid and effective metabolomics approach.

METHODS

Proton nuclear magnetic resonance (¹ H-NMR)-based metabolomics approach coupled with multivariate data analysis was utilised to characterise the XO inhibitors related to the antioxidant properties, total phenolic, and total flavonoid contents of the C. morifolium dried flowers.

RESULTS

The highest XO inhibitory activity, 1,1-diphenyl-2-picryl hydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activity, total phenolic and flavonoid content with strong positive correlation between them were observed in the ethyl acetate (EtOAc) fraction. Detannified EtOAc showed higher XO inhibitory activity than non-detannified EtOAc fraction. A total of 17 metabolites were tentatively identified, of which three namely kaempferol, 4-hydroxybenzoic acid and apigenin, could be suggested to be responsible for the strong XO inhibitory activity. Additive interaction between 4-hydroxybenzoic acid and apigenin (or kaempferol) in XO inhibition was demonstrated in the interaction assay conducted.

CONCLUSION

Chrysanthemum morifolium dried flower-part could be further explored as a natural XO inhibitor for its anti-hyperuricemic potential. Metabolomics approach served as an effective classification of plant metabolites responsible for XO inhibitory activity, and demonstrated that multiple active compounds can work additively in giving combined inhibitory effects.

Heterologous Biosynthesis of Artemisinin in Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat

Artemisinin-based drugs are the most effective medicine against multidrug-resistant Plasmodium spp., the parasite that causes malaria. To this day, wormwood A. annua L. is the sole commercial source of artemisinin, where it is produced in minor amounts. The artemisinin yield depends on numerous poorly regulated agricultural factors and the genetic variability of this non-domesticated plant. This has aroused significant interest in the development of heterologous expression platforms for artemisinin production. Previously, we obtained lines of Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. (C. morifolium Ramat.), cvs. White Snowdon and Egyptianka, transformed with artemisinin biosynthesis genes. Here, we report the results of an analysis of artemisinin production in transgenic chrysanthemums. Transcription of heterologous amorpha-4,11-diene monooxygenase and cytochrome P450 reductase genes in transgenic lines was confirmed using high-resolution melting analysis. Artemisinin accumulation was detected using GC-MS in White Snowdon plants, but not in Egyptianka ones, thereby demonstrating the possibility of transplanting active artemisinin biosynthetic pathway into chrysanthemum. Ways of increasing its content in producer plants are discussed.

Traditional plants from Asteraceae family as potential candidates for functional food industry

Traditional plants have been used in the treatment of disease and pain due to their beneficial properties such as antioxidant, antiinflammation, analgesic, and antibiotic activities. The Asteraceae family is one of the most common groups of plants used in folk medicine. The species Achillea millefolium, Arnica montana, Bellis perennis, Calendula officinalis, Chamaemelum nobile, Eupatorium cannabinum, Helichrysum stoechas, and Taraxacum officinale have been used in different remedies in Northwest Spain. Besides health benefits, some of them like C. nobile and H. stoechas are already employed in cooking and culinary uses, including cocktails, desserts, and savory dishes. This study aimed to review the current information on nutritive and beneficial properties and bioactive compounds of these plants, which are not mainly used as foods but are possible candidates for this purpose. The report highlights their current uses and suitability for the development of new functional food industrial applications. Phenolic compounds, essential oils, and sesquiterpene lactones are some of the most important compounds, being related to different bioactivities. Hence, they could be interesting for the development of new functional foods.

Edible flower essential oils: A review of chemical compositions, bioactivities, safety and applications in food preservation

In the context of consumers' growing concerns and boycotts of artificial and harmful chemicals, satisfying the demands for good-quality food products possessing clean and safe images is a challenge for food industry. Due to natural and avirulent images, various bioactivities as well as potentials to be used as safer substitutes for chemical preservatives, flower essential oils (EOs) have aroused increasing interests in the recent past. Many literatures have verified the biological activities of flower EOs, and have given high value to the preservative potentials of flower EOs in food systems. In this work, a review is done on the most recent publications associating the chemical constituents, bioactivities (antibacterial, antifungal, antioxidant and anti-pest abilities) and safety of flower EOs. The effects of flower EOs on food flavor are also discussed. Finally, the current combined preservation applications of flower EOs and other technologies are summarized.

Introducing a hybrid artificial intelligence method for high-throughput modeling and optimizing plant tissue culture processes: the establishment of a new embryogenesis medium for chrysanthemum, as a case study

Data-driven models in a combination of optimization algorithms could be beneficial methods for predicting and optimizing in vitro culture processes. This study was aimed at modeling and optimizing a new embryogenesis medium for chrysanthemum. Three individual data-driven models, including multi-layer perceptron (MLP), adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS), and support vector regression (SVR), were developed for callogenesis rate (CR), embryogenesis rate (ER), and somatic embryo number (SEN). Consequently, the best obtained results were used in the fusion process by a bagging method. For medium reformulation, effects of eight ionic macronutrients on CR, ER, and SEN and effects of four vitamins on SEN were evaluated using data fusion (DF)-non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm-II (NSGA-II) and DF-genetic algorithm (GA), respectively. Results showed that DF models with the highest R² had superb performance in comparison with all other individual models. According to DF-NSGAII, the highest ER and SEN can be obtained from the medium containing 14.27 mM NH₄⁺, 38.92 mM NO₃^-, 22.79 mM K⁺, 5.08 mM Cl^-, 3.34 mM Ca²⁺, 1.67 mM Mg²⁺, 2.17 mM SO₄^2-, and 1.44 mM H₂PO₄^-. Based on the DF-GA model, the maximum SEN can be obtained from a medium containing 0.61 μM thiamine, 5.93 μM nicotinic acid, 0.25 μM biotin, and 0.26 μM riboflavin. The efficiency of the established-optimized medium was experimentally compared to Murashige and Skoog medium (MS) for embryogenesis of five chrysanthemum cultivars, and results indicated the efficiency of optimized medium over MS medium.Key points• MLP, SVR, and ANFIS were fused by a bagging method to develop a data fusion model.• NSGA-II and GA were linked to the data fusion model for establishing and optimizing a new embryogenesis medium.• The new culture medium (HNT) had better efficiency than MS medium.

Protective effect of Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. ethanol extract on lipopolysaccharide induced acute lung injury in mice

BACKGROUND

To evaluate the effect of Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. ethanol extract (CEE) on lipopolysaccharide induced acute lung injury in mice.

METHODS

The ninety C57BL/6 J male mice randomly divided into five groups: control, model and CEE (50, 100, 200 mg/kg) groups for 7 days oral administration. At the last administration, all mice except control were intratracheal instilled with lipopolysaccharide (LPS, 3 mg/kg) for establish the acute lung injury. Then lung histopathologic, lung wet/dry weight, white blood cells, lymphocytes, neutrophils were detected. The pro-inflammation cytokine tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin (IL)-6, anti-inflammatory cytokine transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1), IL-10 and the marker of antioxides ability total-antioxidant capacity (T-AOC), malondialdehyde (MDA) in lung tissue were measured.

RESULTS

The result showed that CEE could improve lung histopathological injury, reduce the ratio of wet/dry lung weight and lung index, inhibit the increased number of white blood cells, lymphocytes and neutrophils, and reduce the increased levels of TNF-α and IL-6. While CEE also significantly increased the levels of TGF-β1 and IL-10. Furthermore, CEE also markedly increased the activity of T-AOC, and decreased the contents of MDA with a dose-dependent manner.

CONCLUSIONS

The study exhibited that CEE has a potential protective effect on lipopolysaccharide induced acute lung injury in mice, the action mechanism of CEE may through balance of the pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory factors, and the oxygen free radicals inhibition.

Agrobacterium-Mediated Transformation of Chrysanthemum with Artemisinin Biosynthesis Pathway Genes

Artemisinin-based drugs are the most effective medicine for the malaria treatment. To date, the main method of artemisinin production is its extraction from wormwood plants Artemisia annua L. Due to the limitation of this source, considerable efforts are now directed to the development of methods for artemisinin production using heterologous expression systems. Artemisinin is a sesquiterpene lactone, synthesized through the cyclization of farnesyl diphosphate involved in other sesquiterpene biosynthetic systems. Chrysanthemum species as well as A. annua, belong to Asteraceae family, and had been characterized by containing highly content of sesquiterpenes and their precursors. This makes chrysanthemum a promising target for the production of artemisinin in heterologous host plants. Chrysanthemum (C. morifolium Ramat.) was transformed by Agrobacterium tumefaciens carrying with the binary vectors p1240 and p1250, bearing artemisinin biosynthesis genes coding: amorpha-4,11-diene synthase, artemisinic aldehyde Δ11(13) reductase, amorpha-4,11-diene monooxygenase (p1240 was targeted to the mitochondria and p1250 was targeted to the cytosol), cytochrome P450 reductase from A. annua, as well as yeast truncated 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutarylcoenzyme A reductase. This study obtained 8 kanamycin-resistant lines after transformation with the p1240 and 2 lines from p1250. All target genes were detected in 2 and 1 transgenic lines of the 2 vectors. The transformation frequency of all target genes were 0.33% and 0.17% for p1240 and p1250, relative to the total transformed explant numbers. RT-PCR analysis revealed the transcription of all transferred genes in two lines obtained after transformation with the p1240 vector, confirming the possibility of transferring genetic modules encoding entire biochemical pathways into the chrysanthemum genome. This holds promise for the development of a chrysanthemum-based expression system to produce non-protein substances, such as artemisinin.

The Effect of Eucalyptol on Nursing Home Residents

Eucalyptol is one of the most popular volatile components. It is used in many essential oils for relieving sinus and lung congestion caused by a variety of conditions. This pilot study sought to analyze clinical evidence for the effect of the scent of eucalyptol on the cognitive function of elderly people. Seventy nursing-home residents with cognitive impairment were recruited. Three one-week experiments were performed: eucalyptol scent was diffused in bedrooms with a diffuser only at wake-up time in the first experiment, and at wake-up time and bedtime in the second and third experiments. Results showed that although an improvement was not seen when using Mini Mental State Examination (MMSE) and Cohen-Mansfild Agitation Inventory (CMAI) measures, Dementia Behavior Disturbance Scale (DBD) scores improved significantly, even though no subject reported perceiving the scent. The significant improvements of the behaviour were found not only among the subjects whose room had a diffuser but also among the subjects who were exposed to an unperceivable level of eucalyptol drifted in the living room.

Changes in the Volatile Components of Candied Kumquats in Different Processing Methodologies with Headspace-Gas Chromatography-Ion Mobility Spectrometry

The effects of two different processing methods on the volatile components of candied kumquats were investigated via headspace-gas chromatography-ion mobility spectrometry (HS-GC-IMS). The characteristic volatile fingerprints of fresh kumquats (FKs), vacuum sugaring osmosis combined with hot-air drying kumquats (VS-ADKs), and atmospheric pressure sugaring osmosis combined with hot-air drying kumquats (AS-ADKs) were established using 3D topographic plots. From the fingerprints, 40 signal peaks for 22 compounds were confirmed and quantified in all types of kumquats, namely, two terpenes, four esters, seven aldehydes, three ketones, and six alcohols. 3-Pentanone was identified as the major component of FKs; followed by 1-hexanol and the Z-3-hexen-1-ol dimer. The hexanal dimer, 2-hexen-1-ol, and the ethyl acetate dimer were the major markers of VS-ADKs. Benzaldehyde and furfurol were the prominent constituent parts of AS-ADKs. Compared with that in FKs, the pentanal and dimethyl ketone contents of VS-ADKs and AS-ADKs exhibited a dramatic increase (p < 0.05). By contrast, the change in ethanol dimer tended to decrease (p < 0.05). Principal component analysis (PCA) clearly showed that the samples, which were distributed in a separate space could be well-distinguished. Furthermore, the similarity of different processed kumquats and their corresponding volatile components was demonstrated via heat map clustering analysis. The results confirmed the potential of HS-GC-IMS-based approaches to evaluate processed kumquats with various volatile profiles.

Comparative Analysis of Phytochemical Composition of Gamma-Irradiated Mutant Cultivars of Chrysanthemum morifolium

The flowers of chrysanthemum species are used as a herbal tea and in traditional medicine. In addition, members of the genus have been selected to develop horticultural cultivars of diverse floral colors and capitulum forms. In this research, we investigated the phytochemical composition of eight gamma-irradiation mutant cultivars of Chrysanthemum morifolium and their original cultivars. The mutant chrysanthemum cultivars were generated by treatment with various doses of ⁶⁰Co gamma irradiation of stem cuttings of three commercial chrysanthemum cultivars as follows: ‘ARTI-Dark Chocolate’ (50Gy), ‘ARTI-Purple Lady’ (30 Gy), and ‘ARTI-Yellow Star’ (50 Gy) derived from ‘Noble Wine’; ‘ARTI-Red Star’ (50 Gy) and ‘ARTI-Rising Sun’ (30 Gy) from ‘Pinky’; ‘ARTI-Purple’ (40 Gy) and ‘ARTI-Queen’ (30 Gy) from ‘Argus’; and ‘ARTI-Rollypop’ (70 Gy) from ‘Plaisir d’amour’. Quantitative analysis of flavonoids, phenolic acids, anthocyanins, and carotenoids in the flowers of the 12 chrysanthemum cultivars was performed using high performance liquid chromatography-diode array detector-electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (HPLC-DAD-ESIMS). Essential oils from the flowers of these cultivars were analyzed by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The mutant cultivars, ‘ARTI-Dark Chocolate’, ‘ARTI-Purple Lady’, ‘ARTI-Purple’, and ‘ARTI-Queen’ showed higher total amounts of flavonoid and phenolic acid compared with those of the respective original cultivars. The mutant cultivars, ‘ARTI-Dark Chocolate’, ‘ARTI-Purple Lady’ and ‘ARTI-Purple’, which produce purple to pink petals, contained more than two-times higher amounts of anthocyanins compared with those of their original cultivars. Of the mutant cultivars, ‘ARTI-Yellow Star’ in which petal color was changed to yellow, showed the greatest accumulation of carotenoids. Ninety-nine volatile compounds were detected, of which hydrocarbons and terpenoids were abundant in all cultivars analyzed. This is the first report that demonstrated the phytochemical analysis of novel chrysanthemum cultivars derived from C. morifolium hydrid using HPLC-DAD-ESIMS and GC-MS. These findings suggest that the selected mutant chrysanthemum cultivars show potential as a functional source of phytochemicals associated with the abundance of health-beneficial components, as well as good source for horticulture and pigment industries.