Progress in Targeted Alpha-Particle Therapy. What We Learned about Recoils Release from In Vivo Generators

Prostate-specific Membrane Antigen: Alpha-labeled Radiopharmaceuticals

Novel prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA) ligands labeled with α-emitting radionuclides are sparking a growing interest in prostate cancer treatment. These targeted alpha therapies (TATs) have attractive physical properties that deem them effective in progressive metastatic castrate-resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC). Among the PSMA TAT radiopharmaceuticals, [225Ac]Ac-PSMA has been used extensively on a compassionate basis and is currently undergoing phase I trials. Notably, TAT has the potential to improve quality of life and has favorable antitumor activity and outcomes in multiple scenarios other than in mCRPC. In addition, resistance mechanisms to TAT may be amenable to combination therapies.

Selection of radionuclide(s) for targeted alpha therapy based on their nuclear decay properties

Targeted alpha therapy (TAT) is a promising form of oncology treatment utilising alpha-emitting radionuclides that can specifically accumulate at disease sites. The high energy and high linear energy transfer associated with alpha emissions causes localised damage at target sites whilst minimising that to surrounding healthy tissue. The lack of appropriate radionuclides has inhibited research in TAT. The identification of appropriate radionuclides should be primarily a function of the radionuclide's nuclear decay properties, and not their biochemistry or economic factors since these last two factors can change; however, the nuclear decay properties are fixed to that nuclide. This study has defined and applied a criterion based on nuclear decay properties useful for TAT. This down-selection exercise concluded that the most appropriate radionuclides are: 149 Tb, 211 At/ 211 Po, 212 Pb/ 212 Bi/ 212 Po, 213 Bi/ 213 Po, 224 Ra, 225 Ra/ 225 Ac/ 221 Fr, 226 Ac/ 226 Th, 227 Th/ 223 Ra/ 219 Rn, 229 U, 230 U/ 226 Th, and 253 Fm, the majority of which have previously been considered for TAT. 229 U and 253 Fm have been newly identified and could become new radionuclides of interest for TAT, depending on their decay chain progeny.

Can current preclinical strategies for radiopharmaceutical development meet the needs of targeted alpha therapy?

Preclinical studies are essential for effectively evaluating TAT radiopharmaceuticals. Given the current suboptimal supply chain of these radionuclides, animal studies must be refined to produce the most translatable TAT agents with the greatest clinical potential. Vector design is pivotal, emphasizing harmonious physical and biological characteristics among the vector, target, and radionuclide. The scarcity of alpha-emitting radionuclides remains a significant consideration. Actinium-225 and lead-212 appear as the most readily available radionuclides at this stage. Available animal models for researchers encompass xenografts, allografts, and PDX (patient-derived xenograft) models. Emerging strategies for imaging alpha-emitters are also briefly explored. Ultimately, preclinical research must address two critical aspects: (1) offering valuable insights into balancing safety and efficacy, and (2) providing guidance on the optimal dosing of the TAT agent.

CdTe XG-Cam: A new high-resolution x-ray and gamma-ray camera for studies of the pharmacokinetics of radiopharmaceuticals in small animals

BACKGROUND

The recent emergence of targeted radionuclide therapy has increased the demand for imagers capable of visualizing pharmacokinetics in developing radiopharmaceuticals in the preclinical phase. Some radionuclides emit hard x-rays and gamma-rays below 100 keV, in which energy range the performance of conventional NaI scintillators is poor. Multipinhole collimators are also used for small animal imaging with a good spatial resolution but have a limited field of view (FOV).

PURPOSE

In this study, a new imager with high sensitivity over a wide FOV in the low-energy band ( < $<$ 100 keV) was developed for the pharmacokinetic study.

METHODS

We developed an x-ray and gamma-ray camera for high-resolution spectroscopy, named "CdTe XG-Cam," equipped with a cadmium telluride semiconductor detector and a parallel-hole collimator using a metal 3D printer. To evaluate the camera-system performance, phantom measurements with single and dual nuclides (99 m Tc $^{\rm 99m}{\rm Tc}$ ,111 In $^{111}{\rm In}$ , and125 I ) $^{125}{\rm I)}$ were performed. The performance for in vivo imaging was evaluated using tumor-bearing mice to which a nuclide (99 m Tc $^{\rm 99m}{\rm Tc}$ or125 I ) $^{125}{\rm I)}$  administered.

RESULTS

We simultaneously obtained information on111 In $^{111}{\rm In}$ and125 I $^{125}{\rm I}$ , which emit emission lines in the low-energy band with peak energies close to each other (23-26 keV for111 In $^{111}{\rm In}$ and 27-31 keV for125 I ) $^{125}{\rm I)}$ , and applied an analytical method based on spectral model fitting to determine the individual radioactivities accurately. In the small animal imaging, the distributions of the nuclide in tumors were accurately quantified and time-activity curves in tumors are obtained.

CONCLUSIONS

The demonstrated capability of our system to perform in vivo imaging suggests that the camera can be used for applications of pharmacokinetics research.

Biodistribution study of 211Pb progeny released from intravenously applied 223Ra labelled TiO2 nanoparticles in a mouse model

BACKGROUND

Targeted alpha therapy is one of the most powerful therapeutical modalities available in nuclear medicine. It's therapeutic potency is based on the nuclides that emit one or several alpha particles providing strong and highly localized therapeutic effects. However, some of these radionuclides, like e.g.223Ra or 225Ac decay in cascades, where the radioactive progeny originating from the consecutive alpha-decays may leave the original vector and cause unwanted irradiation of non-target organs. This progeny, even if partially retained in target tissues by internalization processes, typically do not follow the fate of originally targeted radiopharmaceutical and potentially spread over body following their own biodistribution. In this study we aimed to estimate 211Pb/211Bi progeny fate from the 223Ra surface-labelled TiO2 nanoparticles in vitro and the fate of 211Pb in vivo in a mice model.

RESULTS

In vitro stability studies have shown significant differences between the release of the mother 223Ra and its progeny (211Pb, 211Bi) in all the biological matrices that have been tested. The lowest released activities were measured in saline, resulting in less than 5 % of released activity for all nuclides. Contrary to that, the highest released activity of 223Ra of up to 10 % within 48 h was observed in 5 % solution of albumin. The released activity of its progeny; the 211Pb and 211Bi was in the range of 20-40 % in this test medium. Significantly higher released activities of 211Pb and 211Bi compared to 223Ra by at least 10 % was observed in each biological medium, except saline, where no significant differences were observed. The in vivo biodistribution studies results in a mice model, show similar pattern, where it was found that even after accumulation of nanoparticles in target tissues, approximately 10 % of 211Pb is continuously released into the blood stream within 24 h, followed by its natural accumulation in kidneys.

CONCLUSION

This study confirms our assumption that the progeny formed in a chain alpha decay of a certain nuclide, in this case the 223Ra, can be released from its original vector, leave the target tissue, relocate and could be deposited in non-target organs. We did not observe complete progeny wash-out from its original target tissues in our model. This indicates strong dependence of the progeny hot atom fate after its release from the original radiopharmaceutical preparation on multiple factors, like their internalization and retention in cells, cell membranes, extracellular matrices, protein binding, etc. We hypothesize, that also the primary tumour or metastasis size, their metabolic activity may significantly influence progeny fate in vivo, directly impacting the dose delivered to non-target tissues and organs. Therefore a bottom-up approach should be followed and detailed pre-/clinical studies on the release and biodistribution of radioactive progeny originating from the chain alpha emitters should be preferably performed.

Technical note: Errors introduced when using Dose Voxel Kernels for estimating absorbed dose from radiopharmaceutical therapies involving alpha emitters

BACKGROUND

In radiopharmaceutical therapies (RPT) involving beta emitters, absorbed dose (Dabs ) calculations often employ the use of dose voxel kernels (DVK). Such methods are faster and easier to implement than Monte Carlo (MC) simulations. Using DVK methods implies a non-stochastic distribution of particles. This is a valid assumption for betas where thousands to tens of thousands of particles traversing the cell nucleus are required to achieve cell kill. However, alpha particles have linear energy transfers (LET) that are ∼500 times higher than LETs of betas. This results in a significant probability of killing a cell from even a single traversal through its nucleus. Consequently, the activity used for therapy involving alphas is very low, and the use of DVKs for estimating Dabs will generate results that may be erroneous.

PURPOSE

This work aims at illustrating how use of DVKs affect the resulting Dabs in small tumors when irradiated with clinically relevant amounts of beta- and alpha-emitters. The results are compared with those from using a Monte Carlo method where the energy deposition from individual tracks is simulated.

METHODS

To illustrate the issues associated with DVK for alpha radiopharmaceutical therapies at the microscale, a tumor cluster model was used to compare beta (177 Lu) and alphas (211 At, 225 Ac, and 227 Th) irradiations. We used 103 beta particles and 20 alpha particles per cell, which is within the range of the required number of particle traversals through its nucleus to sterilize a cell. Results from using both methods were presented with Dabs histograms, dose volume histograms, and Dabs error maps.

RESULTS

For beta-emitter (177 Lu) irradiating the modeled tumor cluster, resulting Dabs was similar for both DVK and MC methods. For all alpha emitters, the use of DVK led to an overestimation of Dabs when compared to results generated using a MC approach.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results demonstrate that the use of DVK methods for alpha emitters can lead to an overestimation in the calculated Dabs . The use of DVKs for therapies involving alpha emitters may therefore not be appropriate when only referring to the mean Dabs metric.

Targeted Radium Alpha Therapy in the Era of Nanomedicine: In Vivo Results

Targeted alpha-particle therapy using radionuclides with alpha emission is a rapidly developing area in modern cancer treatment. To selectively deliver alpha-emitting isotopes to tumors, targeting vectors, including monoclonal antibodies, peptides, small molecule inhibitors, or other biomolecules, are attached to them, which ensures specific binding to tumor-related antigens and cell surface receptors. Although earlier studies have already demonstrated the anti-tumor potential of alpha-emitting radium (Ra) isotopes-Radium-223 and Radium-224 (223/224Ra)-in the treatment of skeletal metastases, their inability to complex with target-specific moieties hindered application beyond bone targeting. To exploit the therapeutic gains of Ra across a wider spectrum of cancers, nanoparticles have recently been embraced as carriers to ensure the linkage of 223/224Ra to target-affine vectors. Exemplified by prior findings, Ra was successfully bound to several nano/microparticles, including lanthanum phosphate, nanozeolites, barium sulfate, hydroxyapatite, calcium carbonate, gypsum, celestine, or liposomes. Despite the lengthened tumor retention and the related improvement in the radiotherapeutic effect of 223/224Ra coupled to nanoparticles, the in vivo assessment of the radiolabeled nanoprobes is a prerequisite prior to clinical usage. For this purpose, experimental xenotransplant models of different cancers provide a well-suited scenario. Herein, we summarize the latest achievements with 223/224Ra-doped nanoparticles and related advances in targeted alpha radiotherapy.

Essentials of Theranostics: A Guide for Physicians and Medical Physicists

Radiopharmaceutical therapies (RPTs) are gaining increased interest with the recent emergence of novel safe and effective theranostic agents, improving outcomes for thousands of patients. The term theranostics refers to the use of diagnostic and therapeutic agents that share the same molecular target; a major step toward precision medicine, especially for oncologic applications. The authors dissect the fundamentals of theranostics in nuclear medicine. First, they explain the radioactive decay schemes and the characteristics of emitted electromagnetic radiation used for imaging, as well as particles used for therapeutic purposes, followed by the interaction of the different types of radiation with tissue. These concepts directly apply to clinical RPTs and play a major role in the efficacy and toxicity profile of different radiopharmaceutical agents. Personalized dosimetry is a powerful tool that can help estimate patient-specific absorbed doses, in tumors as well as normal organs. Dosimetry in RPT is an area of active investigation, as most of what we know about the relationship between delivered dose and tissue damage is extrapolated from external-beam radiation therapy; more research is needed to understand this relationship as it pertains to RPTs. Tumor heterogeneity is increasingly recognized as an important prognostic factor. Novel molecular imaging agents, often in combination with fluorine 18-fluorodeoxyglucose, are crucial for assessment of target expression in the tumor and potential hypermetabolic disease that may lack the molecular target expression. ©RSNA, 2023 Test Your Knowledge questions are available in the supplemental material.

Nanoparticle-Based Radioconjugates for Targeted Imaging and Therapy of Prostate Cancer

Prostate cancer is the second most frequent malignancy in men worldwide and the fifth leading cause of death by cancer. Although most patients initially benefit from therapy, many of them will progress to metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer, which still remains incurable. The significant mortality and morbidity rate associated with the progression of the disease results mainly from a lack of specific and sensitive prostate cancer screening systems, identification of the disease at mature stages, and failure of anticancer therapy. To overcome the limitations of conventional imaging and therapeutic strategies for prostate cancer, various types of nanoparticles have been designed and synthesized to selectively target prostate cancer cells without causing toxic side effects to healthy organs. The purpose of this review is to briefly discuss the selection criteria of suitable nanoparticles, ligands, radionuclides, and radiolabelling strategies for the development of nanoparticle-based radioconjugates for targeted imaging and therapy of prostate cancer and to evaluate progress in the field, focusing attention on their design, specificity, and potential for detection and/or therapy.

Treatment of Prostate Cancer with CD46-targeted 225Ac Alpha Particle Radioimmunotherapy

PURPOSE

Radiopharmaceutical therapy is changing the standard of care in prostate cancer and other malignancies. We previously reported high CD46 expression in prostate cancer and developed an antibody-drug conjugate and immunoPET agent based on the YS5 antibody, which targets a tumor-selective CD46 epitope. Here, we present the preparation, preclinical efficacy, and toxicity evaluation of [225Ac]DOTA-YS5, a radioimmunotherapy agent based on the YS5 antibody.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

[225Ac]DOTA-YS5 was developed, and its therapeutic efficiency was tested on cell-derived (22Rv1, DU145), and patient-derived (LTL-545, LTL484) prostate cancer xenograft models. Biodistribution studies were carried out on 22Rv1 tumor xenograft models to confirm the targeting efficacy. Toxicity analysis of the [225Ac]DOTA-YS5 was carried out on nu/nu mice to study short-term (acute) and long-term (chronic) toxicity.

RESULTS

Biodistribution study shows that [225Ac]DOTA-YS5 agent delivers high levels of radiation to the tumor tissue (11.64% ± 1.37%ID/g, 28.58% ± 10.88%ID/g, 29.35% ± 7.76%ID/g, and 31.78% ± 5.89%ID/g at 24, 96, 168, and 408 hours, respectively), compared with the healthy organs. [225Ac]DOTA-YS5 suppressed tumor size and prolonged survival in cell line-derived and patient-derived xenograft models. Toxicity analysis revealed that the 0.5 μCi activity levels showed toxicity to the kidneys, likely due to redistribution of daughter isotope 213Bi.

CONCLUSIONS

[225Ac]DOTA-YS5 suppressed the growth of cell-derived and patient-derived xenografts, including prostate-specific membrane antigen-positive and prostate-specific membrane antigen-deficient models. Overall, this preclinical study confirms that [225Ac]DOTA-YS5 is a highly effective treatment and suggests feasibility for clinical translation of CD46-targeted radioligand therapy in prostate cancer.

225Ac-Labeled Somatostatin Analogs in the Management of Neuroendocrine Tumors: From Radiochemistry to Clinic

The widespread use of peptide receptor radionuclide therapy (PRRT) represents a major therapeutic breakthrough in nuclear medicine, particularly since the introduction of ¹⁷⁷Lu-radiolabeled somatostatin analogs. These radiopharmaceuticals have especially improved progression-free survival and quality of life in patients with inoperable metastatic gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine tumors expressing somatostatin receptors. In the case of aggressive or resistant disease, the use of somatostatin derivatives radiolabeled with an alpha-emitter could provide a promising alternative. Among the currently available alpha-emitting radioelements, actinium-225 has emerged as the most suitable candidate, especially regarding its physical and radiochemical properties. Nevertheless, preclinical and clinical studies on these radiopharmaceuticals are still few and heterogeneous, despite the growing momentum for their future use on a larger scale. In this context, this report provides a comprehensive and extensive overview of the development of ²²⁵Ac-labeled somatostatin analogs; particular emphasis is placed on the challenges associated with the production of ²²⁵Ac, its physical and radiochemical properties, as well as the place of ²²⁵Ac-DOTATOC and ²²⁵Ac-DOTATATE in the management of patients with advanced metastatic neuroendocrine tumors.

Monte Carlo simulation study to explore optimum conditions for Astatine-211 SPECT

²¹¹At is a promising nuclide for targeted radioisotope therapy. Direct imaging of this nuclide is important for in vivo evaluation of its distribution. We investigated suitable conditions for single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) imaging of ²¹¹At and assessed their feasibility using a homemade Monte Carlo simulation code, MCEP-SPECT. Radioactivity concentrations of 5, 10, or 20 kBq/mL were distributed in six spheres in a National Electrical Manufactures Association (NEMA) body phantom with a background of 1 kBq/mL. The energy window, projection number, and acquisition time were 71-88 keV, 60, and 60 s, respectively, per projection. A medium-energy collimator and three low-energy collimators were tested. SPECT images were reconstructed using the ordered subset expectation maximization (OSEM) method with attenuation correction (Chang method) and scatter correction (triple-energy-windows method). Image quality was evaluated using the contrast-to-noise ratio (CNR) for detectability and the contrast recovery coefficient (CRC) for quantitavity. The low-energy, high-sensitivity collimator exhibited the best detectability among the four types of collimators, with a maximum CNR value of 43. In contrast, the low-energy, high-resolution collimator exhibited excellent quantitavity, with a maximum CRC value of 102%. Scatter correction improved the image quality. In particular, the CRC value almost doubled after scatter correction. The detection of spheres smaller than 20 mm in diameter was difficult. In summary, low-energy collimators were suitable for the SPECT imaging of ²¹¹At. In addition, scatter correction was extremely effective in improving the image quality. The feasibility of ²¹¹At SPECT was demonstrated for lesions larger than 20 mm.

Preclinical PET Imaging and Toxicity Study of a 68Ga-Functionalized Polymeric Cardiac Blood Pool Agent

Cardiac blood pool imaging is currently performed almost exclusively with 99mTc-based compounds and SPECT/CT imaging. Using a generator-based PET radioisotope has a few advantages, including not needing nuclear reactors to produce it, obtaining better resolution in humans, and potentially reducing the radiation dose to the patient. When the shortlived radioisotope 68Ga is used, it can be applied repeatedly on the same day—for example, for the detection of bleeding. Our objective was to prepare and evaluate a long-circulating polymer functionalized with gallium for its biodistribution, toxicity, and dosimetric properties. A 500 kDa hyperbranched polyglycerol was conjugated to the chelator NOTA and radiolabeled rapidly at room temperature with 68Ga. It was then injected intravenously into a rat, and gated imaging allowed us to easily observe wall motion and cardiac contractility, confirming the suitability of this radiopharmaceutical for cardiac blood pool imaging. Internal radiation dose calculations showed that the radiation doses that patients would receive from the PET agent would be 2.5× lower than those from the 99mTc agent. A complete 14-day toxicology study in rats concluded that there were no gross pathology findings, changes in body or organ weights, or histopathological events. This radioactive-metal-functionalized polymer might be a suitable non-toxic agent to advance for clinical application.

In vitro studies of 223Ra- and 225Ac-labelled α-zirconium phosphate as potential carrier for alpha targeted therapy

In this study suitability of α-ZrP nanoparticles as a 223Ra and 225Ac carriers for TAT was investigated. The yields of radiolabelling were higher than 98% in both cases. Subsequently, in vitro stability studies were carried out in various biological matrices during 48 h period. Measurements of released radioactivity showed the highest stability in saline. Released activity of 223Ra, 225Ac and their daughter radionuclides was around 0.5%. On the other hand, the lowest stability was shown in plasma and serum. Released activity for 223Ra, 225Ac and their progeny atoms was from 15 to 32%.

Study of 213Bi and 211Pb Recoils Release from 223Ra Labelled TiO2 Nanoparticles

Nanoparticles of various materials were proposed as carriers of nuclides in targeted alpha particle therapy to at least partially eliminate the nuclear recoil effect causing the unwanted release of radioactive progeny originating in nuclear decay series of so-called in vivo generators. Here, we report on the study of ²¹¹Pb and ²¹¹Bi recoils release from the ²²³Ra surface-labelled TiO₂ nanoparticles in the concentration range of 0.01-1 mg/mL using two phase separation methods different in their kinetics in order to test the ability of progeny resorption. We have found significant differences between the centrifugation and the dialysis used for labelled NPs separation as well as that the release of ²¹¹Pb and ²¹¹Bi from the nanoparticles also depends on the NPs dispersion concentration. These findings support our previously proposed recoils-retaining mechanism of the progeny by their resorption on the NPs surface. At the 24 h time-point, the highest overall released progeny fractions were observed using centrifugation (4.0% and 13.5% for ²¹¹Pb and ²¹¹Bi, respectively) at 0.01 mg/mL TiO₂ concentration. The lowest overall released fractions at the 24 h time-point (1.5% and 2.5% for ²¹¹Pb and ²¹¹Bi respectively) were observed using dialysis at 1 mg/mL TiO₂ concentration. Our findings also indicate that the in vitro stability tests of such radionuclide systems designed to retain recoil-progeny may end up with biased results and particular care needs to be given to in vitro stability test experimental setup to mimic in vivo dynamic conditions. On the other hand, controlled and well-defined progeny release may enhance the alpha-emitter radiation therapy of some tumours.

Development of radiopharmaceuticals for targeted alpha therapy: Where do we stand?

Targeted alpha therapy is an oncological treatment, where cytotoxic doses of alpha radiation are locally delivered to tumor cells, while the surrounding healthy tissue is minimally affected. This therapeutic strategy relies on radiopharmaceuticals made of medically relevant radionuclides chelated by ligands, and conjugated to targeting vectors, which promote the drug accumulation in tumor sites. This review discusses the state-of-the-art in the development of radiopharmaceuticals for targeted alpha therapy, breaking down their key structural components, such as radioisotope, targeting vector, and delivery formulation, and analyzing their pros and cons. Moreover, we discuss current drawbacks that are holding back targeted alpha therapy in the clinic, and identify ongoing strategies in field to overcome those issues, including radioisotope encapsulation in nanoformulations to prevent the release of the daughters. Lastly, we critically discuss potential opportunities the field holds, which may contribute to targeted alpha therapy becoming a gold standard treatment in oncology in the future.

Compton and proximity imaging of 225Ac in vivo with a CZT gamma camera: a proof of principle with simulations

In vivo imaging of 225Ac is a major challenge in the development of targeted alpha therapy radiopharmaceuticals due to the extremely low injected doses. In this paper, we present the design of a multi-modality gamma camera that integrates both proximity and Compton imaging in order to achieve the demanding sensitivities required to image 225Ac with good image quality. We consider a dual-head camera, each of the heads consisting of two planar cadmium zinc telluride detectors acting as scatterer and absorber for Compton imaging, and with the scatterer practically in contact with the subject to allow for proximity imaging. We optimize the detector's design and characterize the detector's performance using Monte Carlo simulations. We show that Compton imaging can resolve features of up to 1.5 mm for hot rod phantoms with an activity of 1 μCi, and can reconstruct 3D images of a mouse injected with 0.5 μCi after a 15 minutes exposure and with a single bed position, for both 221Fr and 213Bi. Proximity imaging is able to resolve two 1 mm-radius sources of less than 0.1 μCi separated by 1 cm and at 1 mm from the detector, as well as it can provide planar images of 221Fr and 213Bi biodistributions of the mouse phantom in 5 minutes.

Gamma counting protocols for the accurate quantification of 225Ac and 213Bi without the need for a secular equilibrium between parent and gamma-emitting daughter

BACKGROUND

Quantification of actinium-225 through gamma counter measurements, when there is no secular equilibrium between actinium-225 and its gamma emitting daughters bismuth-213 and/or francium-221, can provide valuable information regarding the possible relocation of recoiled daughters such that related radiotoxicity effects can be evaluated. This study proposes a multiple time-point protocol using the bismuth-213 photopeak with measurements before secular equilibrium between actinium-225 and bismuth-213, and a single time-point protocol using both the francium-221 and bismuth-213 photopeak while assuming secular equilibrium between actinium-225 and francium-221 but not between bismuth-213 and actinium-225.

RESULTS

Good agreement (i.e. 3% accuracy) was obtained when relying on a multiple time-points measurement of bismuth-213 to quantify both actinium-225 and excess of bismuth-213. Following scatter correction, actinium-225 can be accurately quantified using the francium-221 in a single time-point measurement within 3% of accuracy. The analysis performed on the stability data of [225Ac]Ac-DEPA and [225Ac]Ac-DOTA complexes, before secular equilibrium between bismuth-213 and actinium-225 was formed, revealed considerable amounts of unbound bismuth-213 (i.e. more than 90%) after 24 h of the radiolabeling most likely due to the recoiled daughter effect.

CONCLUSION

Both protocols were able to accurately estimate 225Ac-activities provided the francium-221 energy window was corrected for the down scatter of the higher-energy gamma-emissions by bismuth-213. This could prove beneficial to study the recoiled daughter effect and redistribution of free bismuth-213 by monitoring the accumulation or clearance of bismuth-213 in different tissues during biodistribution studies or in patient samples during clinical studies. On the other hand, the single gamma counter measurement protocol, although required a 30 min waiting time, is more time and cost efficient and therefore more appropriate for standardized quality control procedures of 225Ac-labeled radiopharmaceuticals.

Advances in 177Lu-PSMA and 225Ac-PSMA Radionuclide Therapy for Metastatic Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer

For patients with metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC), the survival benefit of classic treatment options with chemotherapy and drugs targeting androgen signaling is limited. Therefore, beta and alpha radionuclide therapy (RNT) have emerged as novel treatment options for patients with mCRPC. Radioligands target the prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA) epitopes, which are upregulated up to a thousand times more in prostate cancer cells compared to the cells in normal tissues. For this reason, PSMA is an excellent target for both imaging and therapy. Over the past years, many studies have investigated the treatment effects of lutetium-177 labeled PSMA (177Lu-PSMA) and actinium-225 labeled PSMA (225Ac-PSMA) RNT in patients with mCRPC. While promising results have been achieved, this field is still in development. In this review, we have summarized and discussed the clinical data of 177Lu-PSMA and 225Ac-PSMA RNT in patients with mCRPC.

EXPERIMENTAL IN VITRO DOSIMETRY OF 223RA AND 177LU

Targeted alpha therapy with radionuclides undergoing multiple alpha-particle decays is a promising method of nuclear medicine. To study the effectiveness of alpha versus beta emitters, survival of DU145 prostate cancer cells exposed to 223Ra or 177Lu was assessed. Per decay, the cells were much more sensitive to the alpha than beta emitter. However, per unit dose the sensitivities would be comparable, contrary to the well-known evidence, if the decay energy were deposited within the sample completely and homogeneously. Measurements by Timepix detectors showed about three times higher counts of alpha particles above than below the sample. After the first alpha decay of 223Ra to 219Rn, this gas likely moves upwards and its subsequent three alpha decays occur in the upper part of the sample. Correct estimation of absorbed dose is a critical issue when analysing in vitro data and when translating their results to clinical applications.

Dosimetry in targeted alpha therapy. A systematic review: current findings and what is needed

Objective. A systematic review of dosimetry in Targeted Alpha Therapy (TAT) has been performed, identifying the common issues. Approach. The systematic review was performed in accordance with the PRISMA guidelines, and the literature was searched using the Scopus and PubMed databases. Main results. From the systematic review, three key points should be considered when performing dosimetry in TAT. (1) Biodistribution/Biokinetics: the accuracy of the biodistribution data is a limit to accurate dosimetry in TAT. The biodistribution of alpha-emitting radionuclides throughout the body is difficult to image directly, with surrogate radionuclide imaging, blood/faecal sampling, and animal studies able to provide information. (2) Daughter radionuclides: the decay energy of the alpha-emissions is sufficient to break the bond to the targeting vector, resulting in a release of free daughter radionuclides in the body. Accounting for daughter radionuclide migration is essential. (3) Small-scale dosimetry and microdosimetry: due to the short path length and heterogeneous distribution of alpha-emitters at the target site, small-scale/microdosimetry are important to account for the non-uniform dose distribution in a target region, organ or cell and for assessing the biological effect of alpha-particle radiation. Significance. TAT is a form of cancer treatment capable of delivering a highly localised dose to the tumour environment while sparing the surrounding healthy tissue. Dosimetry is an important part of treatment planning and follow up. Being able to accurately predict the radiation dose to the target region and healthy organs could guide the optimal prescribed activity. Detailed dosimetry models accounting for the three points mentioned above will help give confidence in and guide the clinical application of alpha-emitting radionuclides in targeted cancer therapy.

Radiolabeled nanomaterials for biomedical applications: radiopharmacy in the era of nanotechnology

BACKGROUND

Recent advances in nanotechnology have offered new hope for cancer detection, prevention, and treatment. Nanomedicine, a term for the application of nanotechnology in medical and health fields, uses nanoparticles for several applications such as imaging, diagnostic, targeted cancer therapy, drug and gene delivery, tissue engineering, and theranostics.

RESULTS

Here, we overview the current state-of-the-art of radiolabeled nanoparticles for molecular imaging and radionuclide therapy. Nanostructured radiopharmaceuticals of technetium-99m, copper-64, lutetium-177, and radium-223 are discussed within the scope of this review article.

CONCLUSION

Nanoradiopharmaceuticals may lead to better development of theranostics inspired by ingenious delivery and imaging systems. Cancer nano-theranostics have the potential to lead the way to more specific and individualized cancer treatment.

Implications of physics, chemistry and biology for dosimetry calculations using theranostic pairs

Theranostics is an emerging paradigm that combines imaging and therapy in order to personalize patient treatment. In nuclear medicine, this is achieved by using radiopharmaceuticals that target identical molecular targets for both imaging (using emitted gamma rays) and radiopharmaceutical therapy (using emitted beta, alpha or Auger-electron particles) for the treatment of various diseases, such as cancer. If the therapeutic radiopharmaceutical cannot be imaged quantitatively, a “theranostic pair” imaging surrogate can be used to predict the absorbed radiation doses from the therapeutic radiopharmaceutical. However, theranostic dosimetry assumes that the pharmacokinetics and biodistributions of both radiopharmaceuticals in the pair are identical or very similar, an assumption that still requires further validation for many theranostic pairs. In this review, we consider both same-element and different-element theranostic pairs and attempt to determine if factors exist which may cause inaccurate dose extrapolations in theranostic dosimetry, either intrinsic (e.g. chemical differences) or extrinsic (e.g. injecting different amounts of each radiopharmaceutical) to the radiopharmaceuticals. We discuss the basis behind theranostic dosimetry and present common theranostic pairs and their therapeutic applications in oncology. We investigate general factors that could create alterations in the behavior of the radiopharmaceuticals or the quantitative accuracy of imaging them. Finally, we attempt to determine if there is evidence showing some specific pairs as suitable for theranostic dosimetry. We show that there are a variety of intrinsic and extrinsic factors which can significantly alter the behavior among pairs of radiopharmaceuticals, even if they belong to the same chemical element. More research is needed to determine the impact of these factors on theranostic dosimetry estimates and on patient outcomes, and how to correctly account for them.

Diacerein, an inhibitor of IL-1β downstream mediated apoptosis, improves radioimmunotherapy in a mouse model of Burkitt's lymphoma

Lymphoma has the characteristics of a solid tumor. Penetration of monoclonal antibodies is limited in solid tumors during radioimmunotherapy (RIT). Here, we first investigated the use of diacerein (DIA) as a combination drug to improve the penetration and therapeutic efficacy of ¹³¹I-rituximab (RTX) using the Burkitt's lymphoma mouse model. We selected DIA through computational drug repurposing and focused on rheumatoid arthritis (RA) drug interaction genes to minimize side effects. Then, the cytotoxicity of DIA was assessed in vitro using three different lymphoma cell lines. DIA-induced apoptosis was confirmed by Western blotting. After confirming apoptosis, we confirmed the enhanced uptake of ¹³¹I-RTX in Burkitt's lymphoma mouse model using SPECT/CT. Autoradiography of ¹³¹I-RTX confirmed the therapeutic effect of DIA. Finally, the tumor size and survival rate were assessed to measure the enhanced therapeutic efficacy when DIA was used. In addition, we assessed the dose-dependency of DIA in terms of the accumulation of ¹³¹I-RTX in tumor tissue, the tumor size, and the survival rate. The in vitro cytotoxicity was 10.9%. We showed that DIA induced apoptosis which was related to downstream IL-1β signaling by Western blotting. We found increased Annexin V positive apoptosis after DIA administration. Immuno SPECT/CT images demonstrated a higher uptake of ¹³¹I-RTX in tumors in the DIA-administered group than that in the PBS-alone group. However, there were no statistical differences of dose-dependency between 20 mg/kg and 40 mg/kg of DIA. Tumor growth was significantly inhibited in the group treated with the combination of DIA plus ¹³¹I-RTX at 7 days after injection. Our suggested combination of DIA and ¹³¹I-RTX strategies could enhance the efficacy of ¹³¹I-RTX treatment.

Enhancing the Therapeutic Effect of 2-211At-astato-α-methyl-L-phenylalanine with Probenecid Loading

Simple Summary

To enhance the therapeutic effect of 2-²¹¹At-astato-α-methyl-L-phenylalanine (2-²¹¹At-AAMP), a radiopharmaceutical for targeted alpha therapy, we evaluated the effect of probenecid loading on its biodistribution and therapeutic effect in mice. Probenecid preloading significantly delayed the clearance of 2-²¹¹At-AAMP from the blood, increasing its accumulation in tumors. Consequently, the therapeutic effect of 2-²¹¹At-AAMP markedly improved. These results indicate that 2-²¹¹At-AAMP with probenecid loading is useful for the treatment of various types of cancers.

Abstract

L-type amino acid transporter 1 (LAT1) might be a useful target for tumor therapy since it is highly expressed in various types of cancers. We previously developed an astatine-211 (²¹¹At)-labeled amino acid derivative, 2-²¹¹At-astato-α-methyl-L-phenylalanine (2-²¹¹At-AAMP), and demonstrated its therapeutic potential for LAT1-positive cancers. However, the therapeutic effect of 2-²¹¹At-AAMP was insufficient, probably due to its low tumor retention. The preloading of probenecid, an organic anion transporter inhibitor, can delay the clearance of some amino acid tracers from the blood and consequently increase their accumulation in tumors. In this study, we evaluated the effect of probenecid preloading on the biodistribution and therapeutic effect of 2-²¹¹At-AAMP in mice. In biodistribution studies, the blood radioactivity of 2-²¹¹At-AAMP significantly increased with probenecid preloading. Consequently, the accumulation of 2-²¹¹At-AAMP in tumors was significantly higher with probenecid than without probenecid loading. In a therapeutic study, tumor growth was suppressed by 2-²¹¹At-AAMP with probenecid, and the tumor volume was significantly lower in the treatment group than in the untreated control group from day 2 to day 30 (end of the follow-up period) after treatment. These results indicate that probenecid loading could improve the therapeutic effect of 2-²¹¹At-AAMP by increasing its accumulation in tumors.

Obstacles and Recommendations for Clinical Translation of Nanoparticle System-Based Targeted Alpha-Particle Therapy

The rationale for application of nanotechnology in targeted alpha therapy (TAT) is sound. However, the translational strategy requires attention. Formulation of TAT in nanoparticulate drug delivery systems has the potential to resolve many of the issues currently experienced. As α-particle emitters are more cytotoxic compared to beta-minus-emitting agents, the results of poor biodistribution are more dangerous. Formulation in nanotechnology is also suggested to be the ideal solution for containing the recoil daughters emitted by actinium-225, radium-223, and thorium-227. Nanoparticle-based TAT is likely to increase stability, enhance radiation dosimetry profiles, and increase therapeutic efficacy. Unfortunately, nanoparticles have their own unique barriers towards clinical translation. A major obstacle is accumulation in critical organs such as the spleen, liver, and lungs. Furthermore, inflammation, necrosis, reactive oxidative species, and apoptosis are key mechanisms through which nanoparticle-mediated toxicity takes place. It is important at this stage of the technology’s readiness level that focus is shifted to clinical translation. The relative scarcity of α-particle emitters also contributes to slow-moving research in the field of TAT nanotechnology. This review describes approaches and solutions which may overcome obstacles impeding nanoparticle-based TAT and enhance clinical translation. In addition, an in-depth discussion of relevant issues and a view on technical and regulatory barriers are presented.

Recent Achievements about Targeted Alpha Therapy-Based Targeting Vectors and Chelating Agents

One of the most rapidly growing options in the management of cancer therapy is Targeted Alpha Therapy (TAT) through which lethal α-emitting radionuclides conjugated to tumor-targeting vectors selectively deliver high amount of radiation to cancer cells.²²⁵Ac, ²¹²Bi, ²¹¹At, ²¹³Bi, and ²²³Ra have been investigated by plenty of clinical trials and preclinical researches for the treatment of smaller tumor burdens, micro-metastatic disease, and post-surgery residual disease. In order to send maximum radiation to tumor cells while minimizing toxicity in normal cells, a high affinity of targeting vectors to cancer tissue is essential. Besides that, the stable and specific complex between chelating agent and α-emitters was found as a crucial parameter. The present review was planned to highlight recent achievements about TAT-based targeting vectors and chelating agents and provide further insight for future researches.

Nanoradiopharmaceuticals Based on Alpha Emitters: Recent Developments for Medical Applications

The application of nanotechnology in nuclear medicine offers attractive therapeutic opportunities for the treatment of various diseases, including cancer. Indeed, nanoparticles-conjugated targeted alpha-particle therapy (TAT) would be ideal for localized cell killing due to high linear energy transfer and short ranges of alpha emitters. New approaches in radiolabeling are necessary because chemical radiolabeling techniques are rendered sub-optimal due to the presence of recoil energy generated by alpha decay, which causes chemical bonds to break. This review attempts to cover, in a concise fashion, various aspects of physics, radiobiology, and production of alpha emitters, as well as highlight the main problems they present, with possible new approaches to mitigate those problems. Special emphasis is placed on the strategies proposed for managing recoil energy. We will also provide an account of the recent studies in vitro and in vivo preclinical investigations of α-particle therapy delivered by various nanosystems from different materials, including inorganic nanoparticles, liposomes, and polymersomes, and some carbon-based systems are also summarized.

In-House Preparation and Quality Control of Ac-225 Prostate-Specific Membrane Antigen-617 for the Targeted Alpha Therapy of Castration-Resistant Prostate Carcinoma

Purpose:

Ac-225 labeled with prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA-617), a transmembrane glycoprotein which is highly expressed in prostate carcinoma cells, is presently being considered a promising agent of targeted alpha therapy for the treatment of patients suffering from metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer. In the present study, we report an optimized protocol for the preparation of therapeutic dose of Ac-225 PSMA-617 with high yield and radiochemical purity (RCP).

Methods:

Ac-225 PSMA-617 was prepared by adding the peptidic precursor-PSMA-617 (molar ratios, Ac-225: PSMA-617 = 30:1) in 1 ml ascorbate buffer to Ac-225 and heating the reaction mixture at 90°C for 25 min to obtain the radiopeptide with high RCP and yield. The radiolabeled peptide was administered in patients who met the eligibility criteria and posttherapy assessment was done.

Results:

Ten batches of Ac-225 PSMA-617 were prepared following this protocol. The radiopeptide was obtained with an adequate yield of 85%–87% and RCP of 97%–99%.

Conclusion:

The current protocol allows single-step, successful, routine inhouse radiolabeling of Ac-225 with PSMA-617 with high yield and RCP.

An improved 211At-labeled agent for PSMA-targeted alpha therapy

α-Particle emitters targeting the prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA) proved effective in treating patients with prostate cancer who were unresponsive to the corresponding β-particle therapy. Astatine-211 is an α-emitter that may engender less toxicity than other α-emitting agents. We synthesized a new ²¹¹At-labeled radiotracer targeting PSMA that resulted from the search for a pharmacokinetically optimized agent. Methods: A small series of ¹²⁵I-labeled compounds were synthesized from their tin precursors to evaluate the effect of location of radiohalogen within the molecule and the presence of lutetium in the chelate on biodistribution. On that basis, ²¹¹At-VK-02-90-Lu was selected and evaluated in cell uptake and internalization studies, biodistribution and PSMA+ PC3 PIP tumor growth control in experimental flank and metastatic (PC3-ML-Luc) models. A long-term (13-month) toxicity study was performed for ²¹¹At-VK-02-90-Lu, including tissue chemistries and histopathology. Results: The radiochemical yield of ²¹¹At-VK-02-90-Lu was 17.8 ± 8.2%. Lead compound ²¹¹At-VK-02-90-Lu demonstrated total uptake within PSMA+ PC3 PIP cells of 13.4 ± 0.5% of the input dose after 4 h of incubation with little uptake in control cells. In SCID mice, ²¹¹At-VK-02-90-Lu provided 30.6 ± 4.8 percentage of injected dose per gram (%ID/g) of uptake in PSMA+ PC3 PIP tumor at 1 h post-injection that decreased to 9.46 ± 0.96 %ID/g by 24 h. Tumor-to-salivary gland and tumor-to-kidney ratios were 129 ± 99 at 4 h and 130 ± 113 at 24 h, respectively. De-astatination was not significant (stomach 0.34 ± 0.20%ID/g at 4 h). Dose-dependent survival was demonstrated at higher doses (>1.48 MBq) in both flank and metastatic models. There was little off-target toxicity as demonstrated by hematopoietic stability, unchanged tissue chemistries, weight gain rather than loss throughout treatment, and favorable histopathology. Conclusion: Compound ²¹¹At-VK-02-90-Lu or close analogs may provide limited and acceptable toxicity while retaining efficacy in management of prostate cancer.

In situ Generated ²¹²Pb-PSMA Ligand in a ²²⁴Ra-Solution for Dual Targeting of Prostate Cancer Sclerotic Stroma and PSMA-positive Cells

Background: New treatments combating bone and extraskeletal metastases are needed for patients with metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer. The majority of metastases overexpress prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA), making it an ideal candidate for targeted radionuclide therapy.

Objective: The aim of this study was to test a novel liquid 224Ra/212Pb-generator for the rapid preparation of a dual-alpha targeting solution. Here, PSMA-targeting ligands are labelled with 212Pb in the 224Ra-solution in transient equilibrium with daughter nuclides. Thus, natural bone-seeking 224Ra targeting sclerotic bone metastases and 212Pb-chelated PSMA ligands targeting PSMA-expressing tumour cells are obtained.

Methods: Two PSMA-targeting ligands, the p-SCN-Bn-TCMC-PSMA ligand (NG001), specifically developed for chelating 212Pb, and the most clinically used DOTA-based PSMA-617 were labelled with 212Pb. Radiolabelling and targeting potential were investigated in situ, in vitro (PSMA-positive C4-2 human prostate cancer cells) and in vivo (athymic mice bearing C4-2 xenografts).

Results: NG001 was rapidly labelled with 212Pb (radiochemical purity >94% at concentrations of ≥15 µg/ml) using the liquid 224Ra/212Pb-generator. The high radiochemical purity and stability of [212Pb]Pb-NG001 were demonstrated over 48 hours in the presence of ascorbic acid and albumin. Similar binding abilities of the 212Pb-labelled ligands were observed in C4-2 cells. The PSMA ligands displayed comparable tumour uptake after 2 hours, but NG001 showed a 3.5-fold lower kidney uptake than PSMA-617. Radium-224 was not chelated and, hence, showed high uptake in bones.

Conclusion: A fast method for the labelling of PSMA ligands with 212Pb in the 224Ra/212Pb-solution was developed. Thus, further in vivo studies with dual tumour targeting by alpha-particles are warranted.

Development of [225Ac]Ac-PSMA-I&T for Targeted Alpha Therapy According to GMP Guidelines for Treatment of mCRPC

Recently, promising results of the antitumor effects were observed in patients with metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer treated with ¹⁷⁷Lu-labeled PSMA-ligands. Radionuclide therapy efficacy may even be improved by using the alpha emitter Ac-225. Higher efficacy is claimed due to high linear energy transfer specifically towards PSMA positive cells, causing more double-strand breaks. This study aims to manufacture [²²⁵Ac]Ac-PSMA-I&T according to good manufacturing practice guidelines for the translation of [²²⁵Ac]Ac-PSMA-I&T into a clinical phase 1 dose escalation study. Quencher addition during labeling was investigated. Quality control of [²²⁵Ac]Ac-PSMA-I&T was based on measurement of Fr-221 (218 keV), in equilibrium with Ac-225 in approximately six half-lives of Fr-221 (T½ = 4.8 min). Radio-(i)TLC methods were utilized for identification of the different radiochemical forms, gamma counter for concentration determination, and HPGe-detector for the detection of the radiochemical yield. Radiochemical purity was determined by HPLC. The final patient dose was prepared and diluted with an optimized concentration of quenchers as during labeling, with an activity of 8–12 MBq (±5%), pH > 5.5, 100 ± 20 μg/dose, PSMA-I&T, radiochemical yield >95%, radiochemical purity >90% (up to 3 h), endotoxin levels of <5 EU/mL, osmolarity of 2100 mOsmol, and is produced according to current guidelines. The start of the phase I dose escalation study is planned in the near future.

In Vitro and In Vivo Comparison of 3,2-HOPO Versus Deferoxamine-Based Chelation of Zirconium-89 to the Antimesothelin Antibody Anetumab

Introduction: [²²⁷Th]Th-3,2-HOPO-MSLN-mAb, a mesothelin (MSLN)-targeted thorium-227 therapeutic conjugate, is currently in phase I clinical trial; however, direct PET imaging using this conjugate is technically challenging. Thus, using the same MSLN antibody, we synthesized 3,2-HOPO and deferoxamine (DFO)-based zirconium-89 antibody conjugates, [⁸⁹Zr]Zr-3,2-HOPO-MSLN-mAb and [⁸⁹Zr]Zr-DFO-MSLN-mAb, respectively, and compared them in vitro and in vivo.

Methods: [⁸⁹Zr]Zr-3,2-HOPO-MSLN-mAb and [⁸⁹Zr]Zr-DFO-MSLN-mAb were evaluated in vitro to determine binding affinity and immunoreactivity in HT29-MSLN and PDX (NCI-Meso16, NCI-Meso21) cells. For both the zirconium-89 conjugates, in vivo studies (biodistribution/imaging) were performed at days 1, 3, and 6, from which tissue uptake was determined.

Results: Both the conjugates demonstrated a low nanomolar binding affinity for MSLN and >95% immunoreactivity. In all the three tumor types, biodistribution of [⁸⁹Zr]Zr-DFO-MSLN-mAb resulted in higher tumor uptake(15.88-28-33%ID/g) at all time points compared with [⁸⁹Zr]Zr-3,2-HOPO-MSLN-mAb(7–13.07%ID/g). [⁸⁹Zr]Zr-3,2-HOPO-MSLN-mAb femur uptake was always higher than [⁸⁹Zr]Zr-DFO-MSLN-mAb, and imaging results concurred with the biodistribution studies.

Conclusions: Even though the conjugates exhibited a high binding affinity for MSLN, [⁸⁹Zr]Zr-DFO-MSLN-mAb showed a higher tumor and lower femur uptake than [⁸⁹Zr]Zr-3,2-HOPO-MSLN-mAb. Nevertheless, [⁸⁹Zr]Zr-3,2-HOPO-MSLN-mAb could be used to study organ distribution and lesion uptake with the caveat of detecting MSLN-positive bone lesions. Clinical trial (NCT03507452).

Towards Targeted Alpha Therapy with Actinium-225: Chelators for Mild Condition Radiolabeling and Targeting PSMA-A Proof of Concept Study

Currently, targeted alpha therapy is one of the most investigated topics in radiopharmaceutical cancer management. Especially, the alpha emitter 225Ac has excellent nuclear properties and is gaining increasing popularity for the treatment of various tumor entities. We herein report on the synthesis of two universal 225Ac-chelators for mild condition radiolabeling and binding to conjugate molecules of pharmacological interest via the copper-mediated click chemistry. A convenient radiolabeling procedure was investigated as well as the complex stability proved for both chelators and two PSMA (prostate-specific membrane antigen)-targeting model radioconjugates. Studies regarding affinity and cell survival were performed on LNCaP cells followed by biodistribution studies, which were performed using LNCaP tumor-bearing mice. High efficiency radiolabeling for all conjugates was demonstrated. Cell binding studies revealed a fourfold lower cell affinity for the PSMA radioconjugate with one targeting motif compared to the radioconjugate owing two targeting motifs. Additionally, these differences were verified by in vitro cell survival evaluation and biodistribution studies, both showing a higher cell killing efficiency for the same dose, a higher tumor uptake (15%ID/g) and a rapid whole body clearance after 24 h. The synthesized chelators will overcome obstacles of lacking stability and worse labeling needs regarding 225Ac complexation using the DOTA (1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane-1,4,7,10-tetrayl)tetraacetic acid) chelator. Moreover, the universal functionalization expands the coverage of these chelators in combination with any sensitive bio(macro)molecule, thus improving treatment of any addressable tumor target.

Perspectives on metals-based radioimmunotherapy (RIT): moving forward

Radioimmunotherapy (RIT) is FDA-approved for the clinical management of liquid malignancies, however, its use for solid malignancies remains a challenge. The putative benefit of RIT lies in selective targeting of antigens expressed on the tumor surface using monoclonal antibodies, to systemically deliver cytotoxic radionuclides. The past several decades yielded dramatic improvements in the quality, quantity, recent commercial availability of alpha-, beta- and Auger Electron-emitting therapeutic radiometals. Investigators have created new or improved existing bifunctional chelators. These bifunctional chelators bind radiometals and can be coupled to antigen-specific antibodies. In this review, we discuss approaches to develop radiometal-based RITs, including the selection of radiometals, chelators and antibody platforms (i.e. full-length, F(ab')2, Fab, minibodies, diabodies, scFv-Fc and nanobodies). We cite examples of the performance of RIT in the clinic, describe challenges to its implementation, and offer insights to address gaps toward translation.

Preclinical and Clinical Status of PSMA-Targeted Alpha Therapy for Metastatic Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer

Bone, lymph node, and visceral metastases are frequent in castrate-resistant prostate cancer patients. Since such patients have only a few months' survival benefit from standard therapies, there is an urgent need for new personalized therapies. The prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA) is overexpressed in prostate cancer and is a molecular target for imaging diagnostics and targeted radionuclide therapy (theragnostics). PSMA-targeted α therapies (PSMA-TAT) may deliver potent and local radiation more selectively to cancer cells than PSMA-targeted β- therapies. In this review, we summarize both the recent preclinical and clinical advances made in the development of PSMA-TAT, as well as the availability of therapeutic α-emitting radionuclides, the development of small molecules and antibodies targeting PSMA. Lastly, we discuss the potentials, limitations, and future perspectives of PSMA-TAT.

Cytoproliferative effect of low dose alpha radiation in human lung cancer cells is associated with connexin 43, caveolin-1, and survivin pathway

PURPOSE

High LET including alpha radiation-based approaches have been proved as a promising mode for cancer therapy owing to their biophysical and radiobiological advantages compared to photon beams. Studies pertaining to effect of α-radiation on cancer cells are limited to cytotoxic high doses.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this study, human lung adenocarcinoma (A549) cells were α-irradiated using ²⁴¹Am α-irradiator and effects of low dose of alpha radiation on these cells was studied under in vitro and in vivo conditions.

RESULTS

Clonogenic and other assays showed increased cellular proliferation at lower doses (1.36 and 6.8 cGy) but killing at higher doses (13.6-54.4 cGy). Further studies at low dose of alpha (1.36 cGy) showed increased TGF-β1 in the conditioned medium (CM) at early time point (24 h) but CM replacement did not affect the clonogenic survival. In these cells, increased phosphorylation of connexin 43 was correlated with decrease in gap-junction communication observed by dye transfer co-culture experiment. A decrease in caveolin-1 but increase in survivin expression was observed in low dose α-irradiated cells. An increase in cyclinD1 and decrease in Bcl-2, the target proteins of survivin, was observed in these cells. Low dose α-irradiated cancer cells transplanted in SCID mice showed significantly higher tumor volume, which was accompanied with an increased fraction of mitotic and PCNA/Ki67 positive cells in these tumor tissues.

CONCLUSIONS

Taken together, our results suggest an increase in proliferation and tumor volume at in vitro and in vivo levels, respectively, when A549 cells were irradiated with low dose of α-radiation. These findings may be relevant for a better understanding of radiobiological processes during high LET-based cancer radiotherapy.

Targeted Alpha Therapy: Progress in Radionuclide Production, Radiochemistry, and Applications

This review outlines the accomplishments and potential developments of targeted alpha (α) particle therapy (TAT). It discusses the therapeutic advantages of the short and highly ionizing path of α-particle emissions; the ability of TAT to complement and provide superior efficacy over existing forms of radiotherapy; the physical decay properties and radiochemistry of common α-emitters, including ²²⁵Ac, ²¹³Bi, ²²⁴Ra, ²¹²Pb, ²²⁷Th, ²²³Ra, ²¹¹At, and ¹⁴⁹Tb; the production techniques and proper handling of α-emitters in a radiopharmacy; recent preclinical developments; ongoing and completed clinical trials; and an outlook on the future of TAT.

Astatine-211 labelled a small molecule peptide: specific cell killing in vitro and targeted therapy in a nude-mouse model

Extensive interest in the development of α-emitting radionuclides astatine-211 (211At) stems from the potential superiority for the treatment of smaller tumors, disseminated disease, and metastatic disease. VP2, a small molecule fusion peptide, can specifically bind to the VPAC1 receptor which is over-expressed in malignant epithelial tumors. In our recent study, we performed the preparation of 211At labelled VP2 through a one-step method. In this work, we explored the targeted radionuclide therapy with [211At]At-SPC-VP2 in vitro and in vivo. The cytotoxicity and specific cell killing of [211At]At-SPC-VP2 were evaluated using the CCK-8 assay. Compared with the [211At]NaAt, the VPAC1-targeted radionuclide compound [211At]At-SPC-VP2 showed more effective cytotoxicity in vitro. Targeted radioactive therapy trial was carried out in non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) xenograft mice. For the therapy experiment, 4 groups of mice were injected via the tail vein with 370 kBq, 550 kBq, 740 kBq, 3 × ∼246 kBq of [211At]At-SPC-VP2, of which the second and third injections were given 4 and 8 days after the first injection, respectively. As controls, animals were treated with saline or 550 kBq [211At]NaAt. The body weight and tumor size of mice were monitored before the administration and every 2 days thereafter. Cytotoxic radiation of partial tissue samples such as kidneys, liver and stomach of mice were assessed by immunohistochemical examination. The tumor growth was inhibited and significantly improved survival was achieved in mice treated with [211At]At-SPC-VP2, two-fold prolongation of survival compared with the control group, which received normal saline or 550 kBq [211At]NaAt. No renal or hepatic toxicity was observed in the mice receiving [211At]At-SPC-VP2, but gastric pathological sections showed 211At uptake in stomach resulting in later toxicity, highlighting the importance of further enhancing the stability of labelled compounds.

Shape and Size Tuning of BiIII-Centered Polyoxopalladates: High Resolution 209Bi NMR and 205/206Bi Radiolabeling for Potential Pharmaceutical Applications

We have discovered five bismuth(III)-containing polyoxopalladates (POPs) which were fully characterized by solution and solid-state physicochemical techniques: the cube-shaped [BiPd₁₂O₃₂(AsPh)₈]^5- (BiPd₁₂AsL), [BiPd₁₂O₃₂(AsC₆H₄N₃)₈]^5- (BiPd₁₂AsL_N), and [BiPd₁₂O₃₂(AsC₆H₄COO)₈]^13- (BiPd₁₂AsL_C) as well as the star-shaped [BiPd₁₅O₄₀(PO)₁₀H₆]^11- (BiPd₁₅P) and [BiPd₁₅O₄₀(PPh)₁₀]^7- (BiPd₁₅PL), respectively. The organically modified capping groups phenylarsonate, p-azidophenylarsonate, and p-carboxyphenylarsonate were chosen as the azido (-N₃) and carboxyl (-COOH) groups open up opportunities to covalently conjugate (via click reaction, amide coupling, etc.) with targeting vectors. The synthesis of p-azidophenylarsonate is reported here for the first time. The effects of the Bi^III template and the organoarsonate vs -posphonate capping groups on the resulting POP shape (cube vs star) are discussed. The ²⁰⁹Bi NMR (I = 9/2) spectra of BiPd₁₂AsL, BiPd₁₂AsL_N, and BiPd₁₂AsL_C revealed narrow peaks (ν_1/2 ∼ 200 Hz) at 5470 ppm with a longitudinal relaxation time in the millisecond range (at 8.46 T). The absence of a quadrupolar relaxation contribution could be attributed to the allocation of Bi^III in the highly symmetrical cuboid POP host cage. Similar peaks were absent in the ²⁰⁹Bi-NMR spectra of the star-shaped POPs BiPd₁₅P and BiPd₁₅PL due to the less symmetric coordination environment around the central Bi^III ion. Further, ^205/206Bi-radiolabeled POPs have been synthesized by incorporating a ^205/206Bi^III ion in the center of the POP structures. Carrier-free ^205/206Bi radioisotopes (as surrogates of α-emitting ²¹³Bi) were incorporated into the POP host-cage for the preparation of ^205/206BiPd₁₂AsL, ^205/206BiPd₁₂AsL_N, ^205/206BiPd₁₂AsL_C, and ^205/206BiPd₁₅PL, respectively. The radiometal incorporation was complete (>99% radiochemical yield) in 10 min according to radio-thin-layer chromatography. The ^205/206BiPd₁₂AsL polyanion was purified by solid-phase extraction. The incubation in rat serum showed the formation of a ^205/206BiPd₁₂AsL-protein aggregate.

Evaluating 225Ac and 177Lu Radioimmunoconjugates against Antibody-Drug Conjugates for Small-Cell Lung Cancer

Interest in the use of ²²⁵Ac for targeted alpha therapies has increased dramatically over the past few years, resulting in a multitude of new isotope production and translational research efforts. However, ²²⁵Ac radioimmunoconjugate (RIC) research is still in its infancy, with most prior experience in hematologic malignancies and only one reported preclinical solid tumor study using ²²⁵Ac RICs. In an effort to compare ²²⁵Ac RICs to other current antibody conjugates, a variety of RICs are tested against intractable small-cell lung cancer (SCLC). We directly compare, in vitro and in vivo, two promising candidates of each α or β^- category, ²²⁵Ac and ¹⁷⁷Lu, versus pyrrolobenzodiazepine (PBD) nonradioactive benchmarks. The monoclonal antibody constructs are targeted to either delta like 3 protein (DLL3), a recently discovered SCLC target, or CD46 as a positive control. An immunocompromised maximum tolerated dose assay is performed on NOD SCID mice, along with tumor efficacy proof-of-concept studies in vivo. We overview the conjugation techniques required to create serum-stable RICs and characterize and compare in vitro cell killing with RICs conjugated to nonspecific antibodies (huIgG1) with either native or site-specific thiol loci against tumor antigen DLL3-expressing and nonexpressing cell lines. Using patient-derived xenografts of SCLC onto NOD SCID mice, solid tumor growth was controlled throughout 3 weeks before growth appeared, in comparison to PBD conjugate controls. NOD SCID mice showed lengthened survival using ²²⁵Ac compared to ¹⁷⁷Lu RICs, and PBD dimers showed full tumor suppression with nine out of ten mice. The exploration of RICs on a variety of antibody-antigen systems is necessary to direct efforts in cancer research toward promising candidates. However, the anti-DLL3-RIC system with ²²⁵Ac and ¹⁷⁷Lu appears to be not as effective as the anti-DLL3-PBD counterpart in SCLC therapy with matched antibodies and portrays the challenges in both SCLC therapy as well as the specialized utility of RICs in cancer treatment.

Design and Evaluation of 223Ra-Labeled and Anti-PSMA Targeted NaA Nanozeolites for Prostate Cancer Therapy-Part I

Prostate cancer is the second most frequent malignancy in men worldwide. Unfortunately, current therapies often lead to the onset of metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC), causing significant mortality. Therefore, there is an urgent need for new and targeted therapies that are advantageous over the current ones. Recently, the PSMA-targeted radioligand therapy of mCRPC has shown very promising results. In line with this, we described the synthesis of a new radioimmunoconjugate, 223RaA-silane-PEG-D2B, for targeted mCRPC therapy. The new compound consists of a NaA zeolite nanocarrier loaded with the α-particle emitting Ra-223 radionuclide, functionalized with the anti-PSMA D2B antibody. Physicochemical properties of the synthesized compound were characterized by standard methods (HR-SEM, TEM, XRD, FTIR, EDS, NTA, DLS, BET, TGA). The targeting selectivity, the extent of internalization, and cytotoxicity were determined in LNCaP C4-2 (PSMA+) and DU-145 (PSMA-) cells. Our results supported the 223RaA-silane-PEG-D2B synthesis and revealed that the final product had a diameter ca. 120 nm and specific activity 0.65 MBq/1mg. The product was characterized by a high yield of stability (>95% up to 12 days). The conjugation reaction resulted in approximately 50 antibodies/nanoparticle. The obtained radioimmunoconjugate bound specifically and internalized into PSMA-expressing LNCaP C4-2 cells, but not into PSMA-negative DU-145 cells. 223RaA-silane-PEG-D2B demonstrated also potent cytotoxicity in LNCaP C4-2 cells. These promising results require further in vivo evaluation of 223RaA-silane-PEG-D2B with regard to its toxicity and therapeutic efficacy.

Sub-10 nm Radiolabeled Barium Sulfate Nanoparticles as Carriers for Theranostic Applications and Targeted Alpha Therapy

The treatment of cancer patients with α-particle-emitting therapeutics continues to gain in importance and relevance. The range of radiopharmaceutically relevant α-emitters is limited to a few radionuclides, as stable chelators or carrier systems for safe transport of the radioactive cargo are often lacking. Encapsulation of α-emitters into solid inorganic systems can help to diversify the portfolio of candidate radionuclides, provided, that these nanomaterials effectively retain both the parent and the recoil daughters. We therefore focus on designing stable and defined nanocarrier-based systems for various clinically relevant radionuclides, including the promising α-emitting radionuclide 224Ra. Hence, sub-10 nm barium sulfate nanocontainers were prepared and different radiometals like 89Zr, 111In, 131Ba, 177Lu or 224Ra were incorporated. Our system shows stabilities of >90 % regarding the radiometal release from the BaSO4 matrix. Furthermore, we confirm the presence of surface-exposed amine functionalities as well as the formation of a biomolecular corona.

Realizing Clinical Trials with Astatine-211: The Chemistry Infrastructure

Despite the consensus around the clinical potential of the α-emitting radionuclide astatine-211 (211At), there are only a limited number of research facilities that work with this nuclide. There are three main reasons for this: (1) Scarce availability of the nuclide. Despite a relatively large number of globally existing cyclotrons capable of producing 211At, few cyclotron facilities produce the nuclide on a regular basis. (2) Lack of a chemical infrastructure, that is, isolation of 211At from irradiated targets and the subsequent synthesis of an astatinated product. At present, the research groups that work with 211At depend on custom systems for recovering 211At from the irradiated targets. Setting up and implementing such custom units require long lead times to provide a proper working system. (3) The chemistry of 211At. Compared with radiometals there are no well-established and generally accepted synthesis methods for forming sufficiently stable bonds between 211At and the tumor-specific vector to allow for systemic applications. Herein we present an overview of the infrastructure of producing 211At radiopharmaceuticals, from target to radiolabeled product including chemical strategies to overcome hurdles for advancement into clinical trials with 211At.

Nanoparticles in Targeted Alpha Therapy

Recent advances in the field of nanotechnology application in nuclear medicine offer the promise of better therapeutic options. In recent years, increasing efforts have been made on developing nanoconstructs that can be used as carriers for immobilising alpha (α)-emitters in targeted drug delivery. In this publication, we provide a comprehensive overview of available information on functional nanomaterials for targeted alpha therapy. The first section describes why nanoconstructs are used for the synthesis of α-emitting radiopharmaceuticals. Next, we present the synthesis and summarise the recent studies demonstrating therapeutic applications of α-emitting labelled radiobioconjugates in targeted therapy. Finally, future prospects and the emerging possibility of therapeutic application of radiolabelled nanomaterials are discussed.