1
|
Nyulas KI, Simon-Szabó Z, Pál S, Fodor MA, Dénes L, Cseh MJ, Barabás-Hajdu E, Csipor B, Szakács J, Preg Z, Germán-Salló M, Nemes-Nagy E. Cardiovascular Effects of Herbal Products and Their Interaction with Antihypertensive Drugs-Comprehensive Review. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:6388. [PMID: 38928095 PMCID: PMC11203894 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25126388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2024] [Revised: 06/05/2024] [Accepted: 06/06/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Hypertension is a highly prevalent population-level disease that represents an important risk factor for several cardiovascular complications and occupies a leading position in mortality statistics. Antihypertensive therapy includes a wide variety of drugs. Additionally, the potential antihypertensive and cardioprotective effects of several phytotherapy products have been evaluated, as these could also be a valuable therapeutic option for the prevention, improvement or treatment of hypertension and its complications. The present review includes an evaluation of the cardioprotective and antihypertensive effects of garlic, Aloe vera, green tea, Ginkgo biloba, berberine, ginseng, Nigella sativa, Apium graveolens, thyme, cinnamon and ginger, and their possible interactions with antihypertensive drugs. A literature search was undertaken via the PubMed, Google Scholar, Embase and Cochrane databases. Research articles, systematic reviews and meta-analyses published between 2010 and 2023, in the English, Hungarian, and Romanian languages were selected.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kinga-Ilona Nyulas
- Doctoral School of Medicine and Pharmacy, George Emil Palade University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Science, and Technology of Târgu Mureş, 540139 Târgu Mureș, Romania
| | - Zsuzsánna Simon-Szabó
- Department of Pathophysiology, Faculty of Medicine, George Emil Palade University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Science, and Technology of Târgu Mureş, 540139 Târgu Mureș, Romania
| | - Sándor Pál
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Department of Transfusion Medicine, Medical School, University of Pécs, 7622 Pécs, Hungary
| | - Márta-Andrea Fodor
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, George Emil Palade University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Science, and Technology of Târgu Mureş, 540139 Târgu Mureș, Romania
| | - Lóránd Dénes
- Department of Anatomy and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, George Emil Palade University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Science, and Technology of Târgu Mureş, 540139 Târgu Mureș, Romania
| | - Margit Judit Cseh
- Master Program of Nutrition and Dietetics, George Emil Palade University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Science, and Technology of Târgu Mureş, 540139 Târgu Mureș, Romania
| | - Enikő Barabás-Hajdu
- Department of Cell Biology and Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, George Emil Palade University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Science, and Technology of Târgu Mureş, 540139 Târgu Mureș, Romania
| | - Bernadett Csipor
- Doctoral School of Medicine and Pharmacy, George Emil Palade University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Science, and Technology of Târgu Mureş, 540139 Târgu Mureș, Romania
| | - Juliánna Szakács
- Department of Biophysics, Faculty of Medicine, George Emil Palade University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Science, and Technology of Târgu Mureş, 540139 Târgu Mureș, Romania
| | - Zoltán Preg
- Department of Family Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, George Emil Palade University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Science, and Technology of Târgu Mureş, 540139 Târgu Mureș, Romania
| | - Márta Germán-Salló
- Department of Internal Medicine III, Faculty of Medicine, George Emil Palade University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Science, and Technology of Târgu Mureş, 540139 Târgu Mureș, Romania
| | - Enikő Nemes-Nagy
- Department of Chemistry and Medical Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine in English, George Emil Palade University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Science, and Technology of Târgu Mureş, 540139 Târgu Mureș, Romania;
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Ma Y, Zhao Y, Luo M, Jiang Q, Liu S, Jia Q, Bai Z, Wu F, Xie J. Advancements and challenges in pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic research on the traditional Chinese medicine saponins: a comprehensive review. Front Pharmacol 2024; 15:1393409. [PMID: 38774213 PMCID: PMC11106373 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2024.1393409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2024] [Accepted: 04/12/2024] [Indexed: 05/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Recent research on traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) saponin pharmacokinetics has revealed transformative breakthroughs and challenges. The multicomponent nature of TCM makes it difficult to select representative indicators for pharmacokinetic studies. The clinical application of saponins is limited by their low bioavailability and short half-life, resulting in fluctuating plasma concentrations. Future directions should focus on novel saponin compounds utilizing colon-specific delivery and osmotic pump systems to enhance oral bioavailability. Optimizing drug combinations, such as ginsenosides with aspirin, shows therapeutic potential. Rigorous clinical validation is essential for practical applications. This review emphasizes a transformative era in saponin research, highlighting the need for clinical validation. TCM saponin pharmacokinetics, guided by traditional principles, are in development, utilizing multidisciplinary approaches for a comprehensive understanding. This research provides a theoretical basis for new clinical drugs and supports rational clinical medication.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yuhan Ma
- School of Pharmacy, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
| | - Yongxia Zhao
- School of Pharmacy, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
| | - Mingxia Luo
- School of Pharmacy, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
| | - Qin Jiang
- School of Pharmacy, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
| | - Sha Liu
- School of Pharmacy, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
| | - Qi Jia
- School of Pharmacy, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
| | - Zhixun Bai
- Organ Transplant Center, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
| | - Faming Wu
- School of Pharmacy, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
| | - Jian Xie
- School of Pharmacy, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
- School of Preclinical Medicine, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Park JD. Metabolism and drug interactions of Korean ginseng based on the pharmacokinetic properties of ginsenosides: Current status and future perspectives. J Ginseng Res 2024; 48:253-265. [PMID: 38707645 PMCID: PMC11068998 DOI: 10.1016/j.jgr.2024.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2024] [Revised: 02/21/2024] [Accepted: 02/24/2024] [Indexed: 05/07/2024] Open
Abstract
Orally administered ginsenosides, the major active components of ginseng, have been shown to be biotransformed into a number of metabolites by gastric juice, digestive and bacterial enzymes in the gastrointestinal tract and also in the liver. Attention is brought to pharmacokinetic studies of ginseng that need further clarification to better understand the safety and possible active mechanism for clinical application. Experimental results demonstrated that ginsenoside metabolites play an important role in the pharmacokinetic properties such as drug metabolizing enzymes and drug transporters, thereby can be applied as a metabolic modulator. Very few are known on the possibility of the consistency of detected ginsenosides with real active metabolites if taken the recommended dose of ginseng, but they have been found to act on the pharmacokinetic key factors in any clinical trial, affecting oral bioavailability. Since ginseng is increasingly being taken in a manner more often associated with prescription medicines, ginseng and drug interactions have been also reviewed. Considering the extensive oral administration of ginseng, the aim of this review is to provide a comprehensive overview and perspectives of recent studies on the pharmacokinetic properties of ginsenosides such as deglycosylation, absorption, metabolizing enzymes and transporters, together with ginsenoside and drug interactions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jong Dae Park
- R&D Center, REBIO Co., Ltd., Seoul, Republic of Korea
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Gao Q, Li G, Zu Y, Xu Y, Wang C, Xiang D, He W, Shang T, Cheng X, Liu D, Zhang C. Ginsenoside Rg1 alleviates ANIT-induced cholestatic liver injury by inhibiting hepatic inflammation and oxidative stress via SIRT1 activation. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2024; 319:117089. [PMID: 37634749 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2023.117089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2023] [Revised: 08/15/2023] [Accepted: 08/24/2023] [Indexed: 08/29/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Ginseng (Panax ginseng C. A. Mey) is a common traditional Chinese medicine used for anti-inflammation, treating colitis, type 2 diabetes, diarrhea, and recovering hepatobiliary function. Ginsenosides, the main active components isolated from ginseng, possess liver and gallbladder diseases therapeutic potential. AIMS OF THE STUDY Cholestatic liver injury (CLI) is a liver disease induced by intrahepatic accumulation of toxic bile acids and currently lacks clinically effective drugs. Our previous study found that ginsenosides alleviated CLI by activating sirtuin 1 (SIRT1), but the effective ingredients and the underlying mechanism have not been clarified. This study aimed to identify an effective ingredient with the most significant activation effect on SIRT1 from the five major monomer saponins of ginsenosides: Rb1, Rd, Rg1, 20s-Rg3, and Rc further explore its protective effects on CLI, and elaborate its underlying mechanism. MATERIALS AND METHODS Discovery Studio 3.0 was used to conduct molecular docking between monomer saponins and SIRT1, and further detect the influence of monomer saponins on SIRT1 activity in vitro. Finally, it was determined that Rg1 had the most significant stimulative effect on SIRT1, and the hepatoprotective activity of Rg1 in CLI was explored in vivo. Wild-type mice were intragastrically α-naphthylisothiocyanate (ANIT) to establish an experimental model of intrahepatic cholestasis and Rg1 intervention, and then liver injury and cholestasis related indexes were detected. In addition, Liver-specific SIRT1 gene knockout (SIRT1-/-) mice were administered with ANIT and/or Rg1 to further investigate the mechanism of action of Rg1. RESULTS The results of molecular docking and in vitro experiments showed that all the five ginsenoside monomers could bind to the active site of SIRT1 and promote SIRT1 activity in HepG2 cells. Among them, Rg1 exhibited the most significant stimulation of SIRT1 activity in cholestasis. Besides, it could ameliorate ANIT-induced inflammation and oxidative stress in HepG2 cells. Therefore, we investigated the hepatoprotective effect and mechanism of Rg1 on CLI. Results showed that Rg1 reversed the ANIT-induced increase in biochemical parameters, improved liver pathological injury, and decreased liver lipid accumulation, reactive oxygen species and pro-inflammatory factor levels. Mechanistically, Rg1 induced SIRT1 expression, followed by promoted the activity of Nrf2 and suppressed the activation of NF-κB. Interestingly, the hepatoprotective effect of Rg1 was blocked in SIRT1-/- mice. CONCLUSION Rg1 mitigated ANIT-induced CLI via upregulating SIRT1 expression, and our results suggested that Rg1 is a candidate compound for treating CLI.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Qianyan Gao
- Department of Pharmacy, Tongji Hospital Affiliated Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China
| | - Guodong Li
- Department of Pharmacy, Tongji Hospital Affiliated Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China
| | - Yue Zu
- Department of Pharmacy, Tongji Hospital Affiliated Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China
| | - Yanjiao Xu
- Department of Pharmacy, Tongji Hospital Affiliated Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China
| | - Congyi Wang
- The Center for Biomedical Research, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China
| | - Dong Xiang
- Department of Pharmacy, Tongji Hospital Affiliated Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China
| | - Wenxi He
- Department of Pharmacy, Tongji Hospital Affiliated Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China
| | - Tianze Shang
- Department of Pharmacy, Tongji Hospital Affiliated Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China
| | - Xinwei Cheng
- Department of Pharmacy, Tongji Hospital Affiliated Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China
| | - Dong Liu
- Department of Pharmacy, Tongji Hospital Affiliated Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China.
| | - Chengliang Zhang
- Department of Pharmacy, Tongji Hospital Affiliated Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Lu Z, Mao T, Chen K, Chai L, Dai Y, Liu K. Ginsenoside Rc: A potential intervention agent for metabolic syndrome. J Pharm Anal 2023; 13:1375-1387. [PMID: 38223453 PMCID: PMC10785250 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpha.2023.08.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2023] [Revised: 07/26/2023] [Accepted: 08/16/2023] [Indexed: 01/16/2024] Open
Abstract
Ginsenoside Rc, a dammarane-type tetracyclic triterpenoid saponin primarily derived from Panax ginseng, has garnered significant attention due to its diverse pharmacological properties. This review outlined the sources, putative biosynthetic pathways, extraction, and quantification techniques, as well as the pharmacokinetic properties of ginsenoside Rc. Furthermore, this study explored the pharmacological effects of ginsenoside Rc against metabolic syndrome (MetS) across various phenotypes including obesity, diabetes, atherosclerosis, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, and osteoarthritis. It also highlighted the impact of ginsenoside Rc on multiple associated signaling molecules. In conclusion, the anti-MetS effect of ginsenoside Rc is characterized by its influence on multiple organs, multiple targets, and multiple ways. Although clinical investigations regarding the effects of ginsenoside Rc on MetS are limited, its proven safety and tolerability suggest its potential as an effective treatment option.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zhengjie Lu
- Department of Pharmacy, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, China
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, China
- Department of Pharmacology, Wuhan University School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wuhan, 430071, China
| | - Tongyun Mao
- Department of Pharmacology, Wuhan University School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wuhan, 430071, China
| | - Kaiqi Chen
- Department of Pharmacology, Wuhan University School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wuhan, 430071, China
| | - Longxin Chai
- School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan, 430062, China
| | - Yongguo Dai
- Department of Pharmacology, Wuhan University School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wuhan, 430071, China
| | - Kexin Liu
- Department of Pharmacy, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, China
- Department of Pharmacology, Wuhan University School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wuhan, 430071, China
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Ben-Eltriki M, Shankar G, Tomlinson Guns ES, Deb S. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of Rh2 and aPPD ginsenosides in prostate cancer: a drug interaction perspective. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol 2023; 92:419-437. [PMID: 37709921 DOI: 10.1007/s00280-023-04583-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2023] [Accepted: 08/14/2023] [Indexed: 09/16/2023]
Abstract
Ginsenoside Rh2 and its aglycon (aPPD) are one of the major metabolites from Panax ginseng. Preclinical studies suggest that Rh2 and aPPD have antitumor effects in prostate cancer (PCa). Our aims in this review are (1) to describe the pharmacokinetic (PK) properties of Rh2 and aPPD ginsenosides; 2) to provide an overview of the preclinical findings on the use of Rh2 and aPPD in the treatment of PCa; and (3) to highlight the mechanisms of its PK and pharmacodynamic (PD) drug interactions. Increasing evidence points to the potential efficacy of Rh2 or aPPD for PCa treatment. Based on the laboratory studies, Rh2 or aPPD combinations revealed an additive or synergistic interaction or enhanced sensitivity of anticancer drugs toward PCa. This review reveals that enhanced anticancer activities were demonstrated in preclinical studies through interactions of Rh2 and/or aPPD with the proteins related to PK (e.g., cytochrome P450 enzymes, transporters) or PD of the other anticancer drugs or PCa signaling pathways. In conclusion, combining Rh2 or aPPD with anti-prostate cancer drugs leads to PK or PD interactions which could facilitate either therapeutically beneficial or toxic effects.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed Ben-Eltriki
- The Vancouver Prostate Centre at Vancouver General Hospital, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC, V6H 3Z6, Canada.
- Cochrane Hypertension Review Group, Therapeutic Initiative, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.
- Community Pharmacist, Vancouver Area, BC, Canada.
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Max Rady College of Medicine, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada.
| | - Gehana Shankar
- The Vancouver Prostate Centre at Vancouver General Hospital, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC, V6H 3Z6, Canada
| | - Emma S Tomlinson Guns
- The Vancouver Prostate Centre at Vancouver General Hospital, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC, V6H 3Z6, Canada
| | - Subrata Deb
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Larkin University, Miami, FL, 33169, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Kwak YB, Lee E, Choi H, Park T, Kim A, Kim J, Yoon J, Yoo HH. A pharmacokinetic study on red ginseng with furosemide in equine. Front Vet Sci 2023; 10:1319998. [PMID: 38076549 PMCID: PMC10704239 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2023.1319998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2023] [Accepted: 11/10/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2024] Open
Abstract
Red ginseng (RG) is a popular ingredient in traditional Korean medicine that has various health benefits. It is commonly taken orally as a dietary supplement; however, its potential interactions with concomitantly administered drugs are unclear. In this study, we examined the pharmacokinetic interaction between furosemide and RG in equine plasma. Liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry analysis was performed to evaluate ginsenosides in the plasma of horses after feeding them RG and furosemide and validate the results. A single bolus of furosemide (0.5 mg/kg) was administered intravenously to female horses that had consumed RG (600 mg/kg/day) every morning for 3 weeks (experimental group), and blood samples were collected from 0 to 24 h, analyzed, and compared with those from female horses that did not consume RG (control group). Four (20s)-protopanaxadiol ginsenosides (Rb1, Rb2, Rc, and Rd) were detected in the plasma. Rb1 and Rc individually showed a high concentration distribution in the plasma. The Cmax, AUC0-t, and AUC0-∞ of furosemide was significantly increased in the experimental group (p < 0.05), while the CL, Vz, and Vss was decreased (p < 0.05, p < 0.01). These changes indicate the potential for pharmacokinetic interactions between furosemide and RG.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Young Beom Kwak
- Racing Laboratory, Korea Racing Authority, Jeju-si, Jeju, Republic of Korea
| | - Eunkyu Lee
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology and College of Pharmacy, Hanyang University, Ansan, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyunjoo Choi
- Training Support Team, Jeju Stud Farm, Korea Racing Authority, Jeju-si, Jeju, Republic of Korea
| | - Taemook Park
- Equine Clinic, Korea Racing Authority, Jeju-si, Jeju, Republic of Korea
| | - Ahram Kim
- Equine Clinic, Jeju Stud Farm, Korea Racing Authority, Jeju-si, Jeju, Republic of Korea
| | - Jungon Kim
- Management Team, Jeju Stud Farm, Korea Racing Authority, Jeju-si, Jeju, Republic of Korea
| | - Jungho Yoon
- Equine Clinic, Jeju Stud Farm, Korea Racing Authority, Jeju-si, Jeju, Republic of Korea
| | - Hye Hyun Yoo
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology and College of Pharmacy, Hanyang University, Ansan, Republic of Korea
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Xie Y, Wang C. Herb-drug interactions between Panax notoginseng or its biologically active compounds and therapeutic drugs: A comprehensive pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic review. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2023; 307:116156. [PMID: 36754189 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2023.116156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2022] [Revised: 12/24/2022] [Accepted: 01/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Herbs, along with the use of herb-drug interactions (HDIs) to combat diseases, are increasing in popularity worldwide. HDIs have two effects: favorable interactions that tend to improve therapeutic outcomes and/or minimize the toxic effects of drugs, and unfavorable interactions aggravating the condition of patients. Panax notoginseng (Burk.) F.H. Chen is a medicinal plant that has long been commonly used in traditional Chinese medicine to reduce swelling, relieve pain, clear blood stasis, and stop bleeding. Numerous studies have demonstrated the existence of intricate pharmacodynamic (PD) and pharmacokinetic (PK) interactions between P. notoginseng and conventional drugs. However, these HDIs have not been systematically summarized. AIM OF THE REVIEW To collect the available literature on the combined applications of P. notoginseng and drugs published from 2005 to 2022 and summarize the molecular mechanisms of interactions to circumvent the potential risks of combination therapy. MATERIALS AND METHODS This work was conducted by searching PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and CNKI databases. The search terms included "notoginseng", "Sanqi", "drug interaction," "synergy/synergistic", "combination/combine", "enzyme", "CYP", and "transporter". RESULTS P. notoginseng and its bioactive ingredients interact synergistically with numerous drugs, including anticancer, antiplatelet, and antimicrobial agents, to surmount drug resistance and side effects. This review elaborates on the molecular mechanisms of the PD processed involved. P. notoginseng shapes the PK processes of the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of other drugs by regulating metabolic enzymes and transporters, mainly cytochrome P450 enzymes and P-glycoprotein. This effect is a red flag for drugs with a narrow therapeutic window. Notably, amphipathic saponins in P. notoginseng act as auxiliary materials in drug delivery systems to enhance drug solubility and absorption and represent a new entry point for studying interactions. CONCLUSION This article provides a comprehensive overview of HDIs by analyzing the results of the in vivo and in vitro studies on P. notoginseng and its bioactive components. The knowledge presented here offers a scientific guideline for investigating the clinical importance of combination therapies. Physicians and patients need information on possible interactions between P. notoginseng and other drugs, and this review can help them make scientific predictions regarding the consequences of combination treatments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yujuan Xie
- Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, The MOE Key Laboratory for Standardization of Chinese Medicines, Shanghai R&D Centre for Standardization of Chinese Medicines, 1200 Cailun Road, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Changhong Wang
- Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, The MOE Key Laboratory for Standardization of Chinese Medicines, Shanghai R&D Centre for Standardization of Chinese Medicines, 1200 Cailun Road, Shanghai, 201203, China.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Fan M, Lan X, Wang Q, Shan M, Fang X, Zhang Y, Wu D, Luo H, Gao W, Zhu D. Renal function protection and the mechanism of ginsenosides: Current progress and future perspectives. Front Pharmacol 2023; 14:1070738. [PMID: 36814491 PMCID: PMC9939702 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2023.1070738] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2022] [Accepted: 01/24/2023] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Nephropathy is a general term for kidney diseases, which refers to changes in the structure and function of the kidney caused by various factors, resulting in pathological damage to the kidney, abnormal blood or urine components, and other diseases. The main manifestations of kidney disease include hematuria, albuminuria, edema, hypertension, anemia, lower back pain, oliguria, and other symptoms. Early detection, diagnosis, and active treatment are required to prevent chronic renal failure. The concept of nephropathy encompasses a wide range of conditions, including acute renal injury, chronic kidney disease, nephritis, renal fibrosis, and diabetic nephropathy. Some of these kidney-related diseases are interrelated and may lead to serious complications without effective control. In serious cases, it can also develop into chronic renal dysfunction and eventually end-stage renal disease. As a result, it seriously affects the quality of life of patients and places a great economic burden on society and families. Ginsenoside is one of the main active components of ginseng, with anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, antioxidant, and other pharmacological activities. A variety of monomers in ginsenosides can play protective roles in multiple organs. According to the difference of core structure, ginsenosides can be divided into protopanaxadiol-type (including Rb1, Rb3, Rg3, Rh2, Rd and CK, etc.), and protopanaxatriol (protopanaxatriol)- type (including Rg1, Rg2 and Rh1, etc.), and other types (including Rg5, Rh4, Rh3, Rk1, and Rk3, etc.). All of these ginsenosides showed significant renal function protection, which can reduce renal damage in renal injury, nephritis, renal fibrosis, and diabetic nephropathy models. This review summarizes reports on renal function protection and the mechanisms of action of these ginsenosides in various renal injury models.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Meiling Fan
- The Affiliated Hospital of Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China
| | - Xintian Lan
- School of Pharmacy, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China,Key Laboratory of Effective Components of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China
| | - Qunling Wang
- School of Pharmacy, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China,Key Laboratory of Effective Components of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China
| | - Mengyao Shan
- School of Pharmacy, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China,Key Laboratory of Effective Components of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China
| | - Xiaoxue Fang
- School of Pharmacy, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China,Key Laboratory of Effective Components of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China
| | - Yegang Zhang
- School of Pharmacy, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China,Key Laboratory of Effective Components of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China
| | - Donglu Wu
- Key Laboratory of Effective Components of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China,School of Clinical Medical, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China
| | - Haoming Luo
- School of Pharmacy, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China,Key Laboratory of Effective Components of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China
| | - Wenyi Gao
- School of Pharmacy, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China,*Correspondence: Wenyi Gao, ; Difu Zhu,
| | - Difu Zhu
- School of Pharmacy, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China,Key Laboratory of Effective Components of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China,*Correspondence: Wenyi Gao, ; Difu Zhu,
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Zhong Y, Chen Y, Pan Z, Tang K, Zhong G, Guo J, Cui T, Li T, Duan S, Yang X, Gao Y, Wang Q, Zhang D. Ginsenoside Rc, as an FXR activator, alleviates acetaminophen-induced hepatotoxicity via relieving inflammation and oxidative stress. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:1027731. [PMID: 36278209 PMCID: PMC9585238 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.1027731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2022] [Accepted: 09/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Acetaminophen (APAP) intake leads to excessive NAPQI deposition, stimulating inflammatory and oxidative stress and causing fatal liver injury. However, the detailed molecular mechanism involved is unknown, and effective therapeutic approaches remain insufficient. In this study, we discovered that treatment with ginsenoside Rc can prevent the inflammatory response caused by APAP and oxidative stress in mouse primary hepatocytes (MPHs), along with the corresponding changes in related genes. Additionally, Ginsenoside Rc effectively alleviates APAP-induced cellular apoptosis and NAPQI accumulation in MPHs. In vivo, Ginsenoside Rc administration remarkably attenuates APAP-induced hepatotoxicity, repairing liver damage and improving survival. Moreover, Ginsenoside Rc treatment modulates genes involved in APAP metabolism, leading to a decrease in NAPQI and resulting in the alleviation of fatal oxidative stress and inflammatory response after APAP exposure, along with the expression of their related indicators. Furthermore, our RNA-seq and molecular docking analysis implies that FXR expression and FXR transcriptional activity are stimulated by Ginsenoside Rc treatment. Notably, due to the lack of FXR in mice and MPHs, ginsenoside Rc can no longer play its original protective role against hepatotoxicity and cell damage caused by APAP, and it is difficult to improve the corresponding survival rate and prevent hepatic apoptosis, NAPQI generation, fatal oxidative stress, and the inflammatory response induced by APAP and the expression of related genes. In summary, our results indicate that Ginsenoside Rc could act as an effective FXR activator and effectively regulate FXR-induced antioxidant stress and eliminate inflammation while also having an anti-apoptotic function.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yadi Zhong
- The Fourth Clinical Medical College of Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Shenzhen, China
- Science and Technology Innovation Center,Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yingjian Chen
- Science and Technology Innovation Center,Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
| | - Zhisen Pan
- The First Clinical Medical College of Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
| | - Kaijia Tang
- Science and Technology Innovation Center,Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
| | - Guangcheng Zhong
- Science and Technology Innovation Center,Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jingyi Guo
- Science and Technology Innovation Center,Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
| | - Tianqi Cui
- Science and Technology Innovation Center,Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
| | - Tianyao Li
- Science and Technology Innovation Center,Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
| | - Siwei Duan
- Science and Technology Innovation Center,Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiaoying Yang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, China
| | - Yong Gao
- Science and Technology Innovation Center,Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
| | - Qi Wang
- Science and Technology Innovation Center,Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
| | - Dong Zhang
- The Fourth Clinical Medical College of Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Shenzhen, China
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Jeon SY, Jeon JH, Park JH, Lee J, Pang M, Choi MK, Song IS. Simultaneous Analysis of a Combination of Anti-Hypertensive Drugs, Fimasartan, Amlodipine, and Hydrochlorothiazide, in Rats Using LC-MS/MS and Subsequent Application to Pharmacokinetic Drug Interaction with Red Ginseng Extract. TOXICS 2022; 10:576. [PMID: 36287856 PMCID: PMC9610909 DOI: 10.3390/toxics10100576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2022] [Revised: 09/27/2022] [Accepted: 09/27/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Fimasartan, amlodipine, and hydrochlorothiazide are commonly used in combination therapies as antihypertensive drugs. This study aimed to develop and validate an analytical method for fimasartan, its active and major metabolite fimasartan-amide, amlodipine, and hydrochlorothiazide in rat plasma using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The standard calibration curves for fimasartan (1−500 ng/mL), its active and major metabolite fimasartan-amide (0.3−100 ng/mL), amlodipine (0.5−200 ng/mL), and hydrochlorothiazide (5−5000 ng/mL) were linear with R2 > 0.9964, and the inter- and intra-day accuracy and precision and stability were within the acceptable criteria. Using this validated analytical method, the pharmacokinetic interaction of these triple combination drugs between single administration and concomitant administration of the triple combination was investigated; the results did not reveal a significant difference in any of the pharmacokinetic parameters. Based on these results, we investigated the effects of red ginseng extract (RGE) on the pharmacokinetics of fimasartan, fimasartan-amide, amlodipine, and hydrochlorothiazide after oral administration of the combination in rats. No significant difference was observed in the pharmacokinetic parameters of fimasartan, fimasartan-amide, amlodipine, and hydrochlorothiazide, except for the Tmax values of amlodipine. The delayed Tmax value of amlodipine was attributed to its decreased intestinal permeability after repeated RGE treatments. In conclusion, using a combination of antihypertensive drugs and simultaneous analytical methods, we established efficient drug interaction and toxicokinetic studies using a small number of animals.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- So-Yeon Jeon
- College of Pharmacy, Dankook University, Cheon-an 31116, Korea
| | - Ji-Hyeon Jeon
- BK21 FOUR Community-Based Intelligent Novel Drug Discovery Education Unit, Vessel-Organ Interaction Research Center (VOICE), Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Korea
| | - Jin-Hyang Park
- BK21 FOUR Community-Based Intelligent Novel Drug Discovery Education Unit, Vessel-Organ Interaction Research Center (VOICE), Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Korea
| | - Jihoon Lee
- BK21 FOUR Community-Based Intelligent Novel Drug Discovery Education Unit, Vessel-Organ Interaction Research Center (VOICE), Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Korea
| | - Minyeong Pang
- College of Pharmacy, Dankook University, Cheon-an 31116, Korea
| | - Min-Koo Choi
- College of Pharmacy, Dankook University, Cheon-an 31116, Korea
| | - Im-Sook Song
- BK21 FOUR Community-Based Intelligent Novel Drug Discovery Education Unit, Vessel-Organ Interaction Research Center (VOICE), Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Korea
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Miao L, Yang Y, Li Z, Fang Z, Zhang Y, Han CC. Ginsenoside Rb2: A review of pharmacokinetics and pharmacological effects. J Ginseng Res 2021; 46:206-213. [PMID: 35509822 PMCID: PMC9058830 DOI: 10.1016/j.jgr.2021.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2021] [Revised: 11/10/2021] [Accepted: 11/12/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Ginsenoside Rb2 is an active protopanaxadiol-type saponin, widely existing in the stem and leave of ginseng. Rb2 has recently been the focus of studies for pharmaceutical properties. This paper provides an overview of the preclinical and clinical pharmacokinetics for Rb2, which exhibit poor absorption, rapid tissue distribution and slow excretion through urine. Pharmacological studies indicate a beneficial role of Rb2 in the prevention and treatment of diabetes, obesity, tumor, photoaging, virus infection and cardiovascular problems. The underlying mechanism is involved in an inhibition of oxidative stress, ROS generation, inflammation and apoptosis via regulation of various cellular signaling pathways and molecules, including AKT/SHP, MAPK, EGFR/SOX2, TGF-β1/Smad, SIRT1, GPR120/AMPK/HO-1 and NF-κB. This work would provide a new insight into the understanding and application of Rb2. However, its therapeutic effects have not been clinically evaluated. Further studies should be aimed at the clinical treatment of Rb2.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Longxing Miao
- School of Pharmacy, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, China
| | - Yijun Yang
- Department of Pharmacy, Shandong Medical College, Jinan, China
| | - Zhongwen Li
- Department of Pharmacy, Shandong Medical College, Jinan, China
| | - Zengjun Fang
- The Second Hospital, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, China
| | - Yongqing Zhang
- School of Pharmacy, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, China
- Shandong Provincial Collaborative Innovation Center for Quality Control and Construction of the Whole Industrial Chain of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, Shandong, China
- Corresponding author. School of Pharmacy, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, 250355, PR China.
| | - Chun-chao Han
- School of Pharmacy, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, China
- Shandong Provincial Collaborative Innovation Center for Quality Control and Construction of the Whole Industrial Chain of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, Shandong, China
- Corresponding author. School of Pharmacy, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, 250355, PR China. Tel.: +86 531 82613129; Fax: +86 86 531 82613129.
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Jeon JH, Lee J, Park JH, Lee CH, Choi MK, Song IS. Effect of Lactic Acid Bacteria on the Pharmacokinetics and Metabolism of Ginsenosides in Mice. Pharmaceutics 2021; 13:1496. [PMID: 34575573 PMCID: PMC8469489 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics13091496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2021] [Revised: 09/13/2021] [Accepted: 09/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
This study aims to investigate the effect of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) on in vitro and in vivo metabolism and the pharmacokinetics of ginsenosides in mice. When the in vitro fermentation test of RGE with LAB was carried out, protopanaxadiol (PPD) and protopanaxadiol (PPD), which are final metabolites of ginsenosides but not contained in RGE, were greatly increased. Compound K (CK), ginsenoside Rh1 (GRh1), and GRg3 also increased by about 30%. Other ginsenosides with a sugar number of more than 2 showed a gradual decrease by fermentation with LAB for 7 days, suggesting the involvement of LAB in the deglycosylation of ginsenosides. Incubation of single ginsenoside with LAB produced GRg3, CK, and PPD with the highest formation rate and GRd, GRh2, and GF with the lower rate among PPD-type ginsenosides. Among PPT-type ginsenosides, GRh1 and PPT had the highest formation rate. The amoxicillin pretreatment (20 mg/kg/day, twice a day for 3 days) resulted in a significant decrease in the fecal recovery of CK, PPD, and PPT through the blockade of deglycosylation of ginsenosides after single oral administrations of RGE (2 g/kg) in mice. The plasma concentrations of CK, PPD, and PPT were not detectable without change in GRb1, GRb2, and GRc in this group. LAB supplementation (1 billion CFU/2 g/kg/day for 1 week) after the amoxicillin treatment in mice restored the ginsenoside metabolism and the plasma concentrations of ginsenosides to the control level. In conclusion, the alterations in the gut microbiota environment could change the ginsenoside metabolism and plasma concentrations of ginsenosides. Therefore, the supplementation of LAB with oral administrations of RGE would help increase plasma concentrations of deglycosylated ginsenosides such as CK, PPD, and PPT.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ji-Hyeon Jeon
- BK21 FOUR Community-Based Intelligent Novel Drug Discovery Education Unit, Vessel-Organ Interaction Research Center (VOICE), Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Korea; (J.-H.J.); (J.L.); (J.-H.P.)
| | - Jaehyeok Lee
- BK21 FOUR Community-Based Intelligent Novel Drug Discovery Education Unit, Vessel-Organ Interaction Research Center (VOICE), Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Korea; (J.-H.J.); (J.L.); (J.-H.P.)
| | - Jin-Hyang Park
- BK21 FOUR Community-Based Intelligent Novel Drug Discovery Education Unit, Vessel-Organ Interaction Research Center (VOICE), Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Korea; (J.-H.J.); (J.L.); (J.-H.P.)
| | - Chul-Haeng Lee
- College of Pharmacy, Dankook University, Cheon-an 31116, Korea;
| | - Min-Koo Choi
- College of Pharmacy, Dankook University, Cheon-an 31116, Korea;
| | - Im-Sook Song
- BK21 FOUR Community-Based Intelligent Novel Drug Discovery Education Unit, Vessel-Organ Interaction Research Center (VOICE), Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Korea; (J.-H.J.); (J.L.); (J.-H.P.)
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Truong VL, Jun M, Jeong WS. Phytochemical and Over-The-Counter Drug Interactions: Involvement of Phase I and II Drug-Metabolizing Enzymes and Phase III Transporters. J Med Food 2021; 24:786-805. [PMID: 34382862 DOI: 10.1089/jmf.2021.k.0003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Consumption of plant-derived natural products and over-the-counter (OTC) drugs is increasing on a global scale, and studies of phytochemical-OTC drug interactions are becoming more significant. The intake of dietary plants and herbs rich in phytochemicals may affect drug-metabolizing enzymes (DMEs) and transporters. These effects may lead to alterations in pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of OTC drugs when concomitantly administered. Some phytochemical-drug interactions benefit patients through enhanced efficacy, but many interactions cause adverse effects. This review discusses possible mechanisms of phytochemical-OTC drug interactions mediated by phase I and II DMEs and phase III transporters. In addition, current information is summarized for interactions between phytochemicals derived from fruits, vegetables, and herbs and OTC drugs, and counseling is provided on appropriate and safe use of OTC drugs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Van-Long Truong
- Food and Bio-Industry Research Institute, School of Food Science and Biotechnology, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Korea
| | - Mira Jun
- Brain Busan 21 Plus Program, Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Graduate School, Center for Silver-Targeted Biomaterials, Dong-A University, Busan, Korea
| | - Woo-Sik Jeong
- Food and Bio-Industry Research Institute, School of Food Science and Biotechnology, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Korea
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Jin S, Lee CH, Lim DY, Lee J, Park SJ, Song IS, Choi MK. Improved Hygroscopicity and Bioavailability of Solid Dispersion of Red Ginseng Extract with Silicon Dioxide. Pharmaceutics 2021; 13:pharmaceutics13071022. [PMID: 34371714 PMCID: PMC8309041 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics13071022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2021] [Revised: 06/25/2021] [Accepted: 07/01/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
This study aims to develop a powder formulation for the Korean red ginseng extract (RGE) and to evaluate its in vitro and in vivo formulation characteristics. The solid dispersion of RGE was prepared with hydrophilic carriers using a freeze-drying method. After conducting the water sorption–desorption isothermogram (relative humidity between 30 and 70% RH), differential scanning calorimetry thermal behavior, dissolution test, and intestinal permeation study, a solid dispersion formulation of RGE and silicon dioxide (RGE-SiO2) was selected. RGE-SiO2 formulation increased intestinal permeability of ginsenoside Rb1 (GRb1), GRb2, GRc, and GRd by 1.6-fold in rat jejunal segments as measured by the Ussing chamber system. A 1.6- to 1.8-fold increase in plasma exposure of GRb1, GRb2, GRc, and GRd in rats was observed following oral administration of RGE-SiO2 (375 mg/kg as RGE). No significant difference was observed in the time to reach maximum concentration (Tmax) and half-life in comparison to those in RGE administered rats (375 mg/kg). In conclusion, formulating solid dispersion of RGE with amorphous SiO2, the powder formulation of RGE was successfully formulated with improved hygroscopicity, increased intestinal permeability, and enhanced oral bioavailability and is therefore suitable for processing solid formulations of RGE product.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sojeong Jin
- College of Pharmacy, Dankook University, Cheon-an 31116, Korea; (S.J.); (C.H.L.); (D.Y.L.)
| | - Chul Haeng Lee
- College of Pharmacy, Dankook University, Cheon-an 31116, Korea; (S.J.); (C.H.L.); (D.Y.L.)
| | - Dong Yu Lim
- College of Pharmacy, Dankook University, Cheon-an 31116, Korea; (S.J.); (C.H.L.); (D.Y.L.)
| | - Jaehyeok Lee
- BK21 FOUR Community-Based Intelligent Novel Drug Discovery Education Unit, Vessel-Organ Interaction Research Center (VOICE), Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Korea;
| | - Soo-Jin Park
- College of Korean Medicine, Daegu Haany University, Daegu 38610, Korea
- Correspondence: (S.-J.P.); (I.-S.S.); (M.-K.C.); Tel.: +82-53-819-1459 (S.-J.P.); +82-53-950-8575 (I.-S.S.); +82-41-550-1438 (M.-K.C.); Fax: +82-53-819-1576 (S.-J.P.); +82-53-950-8557 (I.-S.S.)
| | - Im-Sook Song
- BK21 FOUR Community-Based Intelligent Novel Drug Discovery Education Unit, Vessel-Organ Interaction Research Center (VOICE), Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Korea;
- Correspondence: (S.-J.P.); (I.-S.S.); (M.-K.C.); Tel.: +82-53-819-1459 (S.-J.P.); +82-53-950-8575 (I.-S.S.); +82-41-550-1438 (M.-K.C.); Fax: +82-53-819-1576 (S.-J.P.); +82-53-950-8557 (I.-S.S.)
| | - Min-Koo Choi
- College of Pharmacy, Dankook University, Cheon-an 31116, Korea; (S.J.); (C.H.L.); (D.Y.L.)
- Correspondence: (S.-J.P.); (I.-S.S.); (M.-K.C.); Tel.: +82-53-819-1459 (S.-J.P.); +82-53-950-8575 (I.-S.S.); +82-41-550-1438 (M.-K.C.); Fax: +82-53-819-1576 (S.-J.P.); +82-53-950-8557 (I.-S.S.)
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Choi MK, Song IS. Pharmacokinetic Drug-Drug Interactions and Herb-Drug Interactions. Pharmaceutics 2021; 13:610. [PMID: 33922481 PMCID: PMC8146483 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics13050610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2021] [Accepted: 04/22/2021] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Due to the growing use of herbal supplementation-ease of taking herbal supplements with therapeutics drugs (i [...].
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Min-Koo Choi
- College of Pharmacy, Dankook University, Cheon-an 31116, Korea;
| | - Im-Sook Song
- BK21 FOUR Community-Based Intelligent Novel Drug Discovery Education Unit, Vessel-Organ Interaction Research Center (VOICE), Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Korea
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Theile D, Wagner L, Haefeli WE, Weiss J. In vitro evidence suggesting that the toll-like receptor 7 and 8 agonist resiquimod (R-848) unlikely affects drug levels of co-administered compounds. Eur J Pharm Sci 2021; 162:105826. [PMID: 33813039 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2021.105826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2021] [Revised: 03/04/2021] [Accepted: 03/27/2021] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Resiquimod (R-848) is an immune response modifier activating toll-like receptor 7 and 8. Its potential to cause pharmacokinetic interactions with concurrently administered drugs is unknown. To study the time course of the effect of resiquimod in LS180 cells as a model for intestinal tissue, luciferase-based reporter gene assays and reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction were used to investigate whether resiquimod affects the activities of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-ĸB), pregnane x receptor (PXR) or the transcription of selected central genes for drug disposition (cytochrome P-450 isozyme 3A4 (CYP3A4), CYP1A1, UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 1A1 (UGT1A1), ATP-binding cassette transporters ABCC2, ABCB1). Its impact on the activities of organic anion transporting polypeptides 1 or 3 (OATP1B1/3), breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP), P-glycoprotein (P-gp) or CYP3A4 was evaluated using fluorescence- or luminescence-based activity assays. Resiquimod irrelevantly increased NF-ĸB activity after 2 h (1 µM: 1.07-fold, P = 0.0188; 10 µM: 1.09-fold, P = 0.0142), and diminished it after 24 h (1 µM: 0.64-fold, P < 0.0001; 10 µM: 0.68-fold, P < 0.0001) and 30 h (10 µM: 0.68-fold, P = 0.0003). Concurrently, PXR activity after 24 h was marginally increased by 10 µM (1.05-fold, P = 0.0019). Resiquimod did not alter mRNA expression levels, activities of uptake or efflux transporters, or CYP3A4 activity. Given the marginal effects on NF-ĸB, PXR, expression levels of selected PXR target genes, and activities of important drug transporters and CYP3A4 in vitro, resiquimod is not expected to cause major pharmacokinetic drug-drug interactions in vivo.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dirk Theile
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology and Pharmacoepidemiology, Heidelberg University Hospital, Im Neuenheimer Feld 410, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany.
| | - Lelia Wagner
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology and Pharmacoepidemiology, Heidelberg University Hospital, Im Neuenheimer Feld 410, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Walter E Haefeli
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology and Pharmacoepidemiology, Heidelberg University Hospital, Im Neuenheimer Feld 410, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Johanna Weiss
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology and Pharmacoepidemiology, Heidelberg University Hospital, Im Neuenheimer Feld 410, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Guo JCL, Pan HC, Yeh BY, Lu YC, Chen JL, Yang CW, Chen YC, Lin YH, Chen HY. Associations Between Using Chinese Herbal Medicine and Long-Term Outcome Among Pre-dialysis Diabetic Nephropathy Patients: A Retrospective Population-Based Cohort Study. Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:616522. [PMID: 33679399 PMCID: PMC7930622 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.616522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2020] [Accepted: 01/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Chronic kidney disease (CKD) has become a worldwide burden due to the high co-morbidity and mortality. Diabetic nephropathy (DN) is one of the leading causes of CKD, and pre-dialysis is one of the most critical stages before the end-stage renal disease (ESRD). Although Chinese herbal medicine (CHM) use is not uncommon, the feasibility of using CHM among pre-dialysis DN patients remains unclear. Materials and methods: We analyzed a population-based cohort, retrieved from Taiwan’s National Health Insurance Research Database, to study the long-term outcome of using CHM among incident pre-dialysis DN patients from January 1, 2004, to December 31, 2007. All patients were followed up to 5 years or the occurrence of mortality. The risks of all-cause mortality and ESRD were carried out using Kaplan-Meier and competing risk estimation, respectively. Further, we demonstrated the CHM prescriptions and core CHMs using the Chinese herbal medicine network (CMN) analysis. Results: A total of 6,648 incident pre-dialysis DN patients were analyzed, including 877 CHM users and 5,771 CHM nonusers. With overlap weighing for balancing all accessible covariates between CHM users and nonusers, we found the use of CHM was associated with lower all-cause mortality (0.22 versus 0.56; log-rank test: p-value <0.001), and the risk of mortality was 0.42 (95% CI: 0.36–0.49; p-value <0.001) by adjusting all accessible covariates. Further, the use of CHM was associated with a lower risk of ESRD (cause-specific hazard ratio: 0.59, 95%CI: 0.55–0.63; p-value <0.001). Also, from the 5,901 CHM prescriptions, we found Ji-Sheng-Shen-Qi-Wan, Astragalus mongholicus Bunge or (Astragalus membranaceus (Fisch.) Bge.), Plantago asiatica L. (or Plantago depressa Willd.), Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge, and Rheum palmatum L. (or Rheum tanguticum (Maxim. ex Regel) Balf., Rheum officinale Baill.) were used as core CHMs for different CHM indications. Use of core CHMs was associated with a lower risk of mortality than CHM users without using core CHMs. Conclusions: The use of CHM seemed feasible among pre-dialysis DN patients; however, the beneficial effects still need to be validated by well-designed clinical trials.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jenny Chun-Ling Guo
- Division of Chinese Internal Medicine, Center for Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Heng-Chih Pan
- College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan.,Division of Nephrology, Department of Internal Medicine, Keelung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Keelung, Taiwan
| | - Bo-Yan Yeh
- Division of Acupuncture and Moxibustion, Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Yen Chu Lu
- Division of Chinese Internal Medicine, Center for Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Jiun-Liang Chen
- Division of Chinese Internal Medicine, Center for Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan, Taiwan.,School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Ching-Wei Yang
- Division of Chinese Internal Medicine, Center for Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan, Taiwan.,School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Chun Chen
- School of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Hsuan Lin
- Division of Chinese Internal Medicine, Center for Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan, Taiwan.,College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Hsing-Yu Chen
- Division of Chinese Internal Medicine, Center for Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan, Taiwan.,College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan.,Graduate Institute of Clinical Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Kang YJ, Lee CH, Park SJ, Lee HS, Choi MK, Song IS. Involvement of Organic Anion Transporters in the Pharmacokinetics and Drug Interaction of Rosmarinic Acid. Pharmaceutics 2021; 13:pharmaceutics13010083. [PMID: 33435470 PMCID: PMC7828042 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics13010083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2020] [Revised: 01/05/2021] [Accepted: 01/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
We investigated the involvement of drug transporters in the pharmacokinetics of rosmarinic acid in rats as well as the transporter-mediated drug interaction potential of rosmarinic acid in HEK293 cells overexpressing clinically important solute carrier transporters and also in rats. Intravenously injected rosmarinic acid showed bi-exponential decay and unchanged rosmarinic acid was mainly eliminated by urinary excretion, suggesting the involvement of transporters in its renal excretion. Rosmarinic acid showed organic anion transporter (OAT)1-mediated active transport with a Km of 26.5 μM and a Vmax of 69.0 pmol/min in HEK293 cells overexpressing OAT1, and the plasma concentrations of rosmarinic acid were increased by the co-injection of probenecid because of decreased renal excretion due to OAT1 inhibition. Rosmarinic acid inhibited the transport activities of OAT1, OAT3, organic anion transporting polypeptide (OATP)1B1, and OATP1B3 with IC50 values of 60.6 μM, 1.52 μM, 74.8 μM, and 91.3 μM, respectively, and the inhibitory effect of rosmarinic acid on OAT3 transport activity caused an in vivo pharmacokinetic interaction with furosemide by inhibiting its renal excretion and by increasing its plasma concentration. In conclusion, OAT1 and OAT3 are the major transporters that may regulate the pharmacokinetic properties of rosmarinic acid and may cause herb-drug interactions with rosmarinic acid, although their clinical relevance awaits further evaluation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yun Ju Kang
- College of Pharmacy and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Korea;
| | - Chul Haeng Lee
- College of Pharmacy, Dankook University, Cheonan 31116, Korea;
| | - Soo-Jin Park
- College of Korean Medicine, Daegu Haany University, Daegu 38610, Korea;
| | - Hye Suk Lee
- College of Pharmacy, The Catholic University of Korea, Bucheon 14662, Korea;
| | - Min-Koo Choi
- College of Pharmacy, Dankook University, Cheonan 31116, Korea;
- Correspondence: (M.-K.C.); (I.-S.S.); Tel.: +82-41-550-1438 (M.-K.C.); +82-53-950-8575 (I.-S.S.); Fax: +82-53-950-8557 (I.-S.S.)
| | - Im-Sook Song
- College of Pharmacy and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Korea;
- BK21 FOUR Community-Based Intelligent Novel Drug Discovery Education Unit, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Korea
- Correspondence: (M.-K.C.); (I.-S.S.); Tel.: +82-41-550-1438 (M.-K.C.); +82-53-950-8575 (I.-S.S.); Fax: +82-53-950-8557 (I.-S.S.)
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Pharmacokinetics of ginsenosides following repeated oral administration of red ginseng extract significantly differ between species of experimental animals. Arch Pharm Res 2020; 43:1335-1346. [DOI: 10.1007/s12272-020-01289-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2020] [Accepted: 11/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
|
21
|
Inhibitory Effect of AB-PINACA, Indazole Carboxamide Synthetic Cannabinoid, on Human Major Drug-Metabolizing Enzymes and Transporters. Pharmaceutics 2020; 12:pharmaceutics12111036. [PMID: 33138123 PMCID: PMC7692329 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics12111036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2020] [Revised: 10/19/2020] [Accepted: 10/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Indazole carboxamide synthetic cannabinoid, AB-PINACA, has been placed into Schedule I of the Controlled Substances Act by the US Drug Enforcement Administration since 2015. Despite the possibility of AB-PINACA exposure in drug abusers, the interactions between AB-PINACA and drug-metabolizing enzymes and transporters that play crucial roles in the pharmacokinetics and efficacy of various substrate drugs have not been investigated. This study was performed to investigate the inhibitory effects of AB-PINACA on eight clinically important human major cytochrome P450s (CYPs) and six uridine 5′-diphospho-glucuronosyltransferases (UGT) in human liver microsomes and the activities of six solute carrier transporters and two efflux transporters in transporter-overexpressing cells. AB-PINACA reversibly inhibited the metabolic activities of CYP2C8 (Ki, 16.9 µM), CYP2C9 (Ki, 6.7 µM), and CYP2C19 (Ki, 16.1 µM) and the transport activity of OAT3 (Ki, 8.3 µM). It exhibited time-dependent inhibition on CYP3A4 (Ki, 17.6 µM; kinact, 0.04047 min−1). Other metabolizing enzymes and transporters such as CYP1A2, CYP2A6, CYP2B6, CYP2D6, UGT1A1, UGT1A3, UGT1A4, UGT1A6, UGT1A9, UGT2B7, OAT1, OATP1B1, OATP1B3, OCT1, OCT2, P-glycoprotein, and BCRP, exhibited only weak interactions with AB-PINACA. These data suggest that AB-PINACA can cause drug-drug interactions with CYP3A4 substrates but that the significance of drug interactions between AB-PINACA and CYP2C8, CYP2C9, CYP2C19, or OAT3 substrates should be interpreted carefully.
Collapse
|
22
|
Kwon M, Jeon JH, Choi MK, Song IS. The Development and Validation of a Novel "Dual Cocktail" Probe for Cytochrome P450s and Transporter Functions to Evaluate Pharmacokinetic Drug-Drug and Herb-Drug Interactions. Pharmaceutics 2020; 12:E938. [PMID: 33007943 PMCID: PMC7600799 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics12100938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2020] [Revised: 09/25/2020] [Accepted: 09/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
This study was designed to develop and validate a 10 probe drug cocktail named "Dual Cocktail", composed of caffeine (Cyp1a2 in rat and CYP1A2 in human, 1 mg/kg), diclofenac (Cyp2c11 in rat and CYP2C9 in human, 2 mg/kg), omeprazole (Cyp2c11 in rat and CYP2C19 in human, 2 mg/kg), dextromethorphan (Cyp2d2 in rat and CYP2D6 in human, 10 mg/kg), nifedipine (Cyp3a1 in rat and CYP3A4 in human, 0.5 mg/kg), metformin (Oct1/2 in rat and OCT1/2 in human, 0.5 mg/kg), furosemide (Oat1/3 in rat and OAT1/3 in human, 0.1 mg/kg), valsartan (Oatp2 in rat and OATP1B1/1B3 in human, 0.2 mg/kg), digoxin (P-gp in rat and human, 2 mg/kg), and methotrexate (Mrp2 in rat and MRP2 in human, 0.5 mg/kg), for the evaluation of pharmacokinetic drug-drug and herb-drug interactions through the modulation of a representative panel of CYP enzymes or transporters in rats. To ensure no interaction among the ten probe substrates, we developed a 2-step evaluation protocol. In the first step, the pharmacokinetic properties of five individual CYP probe substrates and five individual transporter substrates were compared with the pharmacokinetics of five CYP cocktail or five transporters cocktails in two groups of randomly assigned rats. Next, a pharmacokinetic comparison was conducted between the CYP or transporter cocktail group and the dual cocktail group, respectively. None of the ten comparison groups was found to be statistically significant, indicating the CYP and transporter substrate sets or dual cocktail set could be concomitantly administered in rats. The "Dual Cocktail" was further validated by assessing the metabolism of nifedipine and omeprazole, which was significantly reduced by a single oral dose of ketoconazole (10 mg/kg); however, no changes were observed in the pharmacokinetic parameters of other probe substrates. Additionally, multiple oral doses of rifampin (20 mg/kg) reduced the plasma concentrations of nifedipine and digoxin, although not any of the other substrates. In conclusion, the dual cocktail can be used to characterize potential pharmacokinetic drug-drug interactions by simultaneously monitoring the activity of multiple CYP isoforms and transporters.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mihwa Kwon
- College of Pharmacy and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Korea; (M.K.); (J.-H.J.)
| | - Ji-Hyeon Jeon
- College of Pharmacy and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Korea; (M.K.); (J.-H.J.)
| | - Min-Koo Choi
- College of Pharmacy, Dankook University, Cheon-an 31116, Korea;
| | - Im-Sook Song
- College of Pharmacy and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Korea; (M.K.); (J.-H.J.)
- Vessel-Organ Interaction Research Center (VOICE), Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Korea
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Choi MK, Nam SJ, Ji HY, Park MJ, Choi JS, Song IS. Comparative Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics of a Novel Sodium-Glucose Cotransporter 2 Inhibitor, DWP16001, with Dapagliflozin and Ipragliflozin. Pharmaceutics 2020; 12:pharmaceutics12030268. [PMID: 32183468 PMCID: PMC7151106 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics12030268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2020] [Revised: 03/12/2020] [Accepted: 03/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Since sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors reduced blood glucose level by inhibiting renal tubular glucose reabsorption mediated by SGLT2, we aimed to investigate the pharmacokinetics and kidney distribution of DWP16001, a novel SGLT2 inhibitor, and to compare these properties with those of dapagliflozin and ipragliflozin, representative SGLT2 inhibitors. The plasma exposure of DWP16001 was comparable with that of ipragliflozin but higher than that of dapagliflozin. DWP16001 showed the highest kidney distribution among three SGLT2 inhibitors when expressed as an area under curve (AUC) ratio of kidney to plasma (85.0 ± 16.1 for DWP16001, 64.6 ± 31.8 for dapagliflozin and 38.4 ± 5.3 for ipragliflozin). The organic anion transporter-mediated kidney uptake of DWP16001 could be partly attributed to the highest kidney uptake. Additionally, DWP16001 had the lowest half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) to SGLT2, a target transporter (0.8 ± 0.3 nM for DWP16001, 1.6 ± 0.3 nM for dapagliflozin, and 8.9 ± 1.7 nM for ipragliflozin). The inhibition mode of DWP16001 on SGLT2 was reversible and competitive, but the recovery of the SGLT2 inhibition after the removal of SGLT2 inhibitors in CHO cells overexpressing SGLT2 was retained with DWP16001, which is not the case with dapagliflozin and ipragliflozin. In conclusion, selective and competitive SGLT2 inhibition of DWP16001 could potentiate the efficacy of DWP16001 in coordination with the higher kidney distribution and retained SGLT2 inhibition of DWP16001 relative to dapagliflozin and ipragliflozin.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Min-Koo Choi
- College of Pharmacy, Dankook University, Cheon-an 31116, Korea;
| | - So Jeong Nam
- College of Pharmacy and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Korea;
| | - Hye-Young Ji
- Life Science Institute, Daewoong Pharmaceutical, Yongin, Gyeonggido 17028, Korea; (H.-Y.J.); (M.J.P.); (J.-S.C.)
| | - Mi Jie Park
- Life Science Institute, Daewoong Pharmaceutical, Yongin, Gyeonggido 17028, Korea; (H.-Y.J.); (M.J.P.); (J.-S.C.)
| | - Ji-Soo Choi
- Life Science Institute, Daewoong Pharmaceutical, Yongin, Gyeonggido 17028, Korea; (H.-Y.J.); (M.J.P.); (J.-S.C.)
| | - Im-Sook Song
- College of Pharmacy and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Korea;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +82-53-950-8575
| |
Collapse
|