Isolation, Characterization, and Medicinal Potential of Polysaccharides of Morchella esculenta

Functional Properties, Rheological Characteristics, Simulated Digestion, and Fermentation by Human Fecal Microbiota of Polysaccharide from Morchella importuna

Morchella importuna polysaccharide (MIP) has been proven to have obvious hypoglycemic effects on mice with type 2 diabetes (T2DM). This study looked at the functional and rheological characteristics of MIP, and investigated the effects of MIP on the human fecal microbiota through in vitro fermentation experiments. The outcomes demonstrate the excellent oil-holding capacity, emulsifying, foaming, and rheological characteristics of MIP. After salivary gastrointestinal digestion, the Mw of MIP decreased from 398.2 kDa and 21.5 kDa to 21.9 kDa and 11.7 kDa. By 16S rRNA sequencing of bacteria fermented in vitro, it was found that MIP did not improve the richness and diversity of intestinal microorganisms, but it may exert an anti-T2DM function by significantly increasing the relative abundance of Firmicutes and promoting Ruminococcaceae_UCG_014, Bacteroides, and Blautia proliferation. Escherichia-Shigella could also be inhibited to improve the intestinal microenvironment. In addition, the fermentation of MIP increased the total short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) concentration from 3.23 mmol/L to 39.12 mmol/L, and the propionic acid content increased significantly. In summary, MIP has excellent processing performance and is expected to exert potential anti-T2DM activity through the human intestinal microbiota, which has broad market prospects.

Characterization of Polysaccharide Extracts of Four Edible Mushrooms and Determination of In Vitro Antioxidant, Enzyme Inhibition and Anticancer Activities

Mushroom polysaccharides are important bioactive compounds derived from mushrooms with various beneficial properties. In this study, the chemical characterization and bioactivities of polysaccharide extracts from four different edible mushrooms, Clavariadelphus truncatus Donk, Craterellus tubaeformis (Fr.) Quél., Hygrophorus pudorinus (Fr.) Fr., and Macrolepiota procera (Scop.) Singer were studied. Glucose (13.24-56.02%), galactose (14.18-64.05%), mannose (2.18-18.13%), fucose (1.21-5.78%), and arabinose (0.04-5.43%) were identified in all polysaccharide extracts by GC-MS (gas chromatography-mass spectrometry). FT-IR (Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy) confirmed the presence of characteristic carbohydrate patterns. 1H NMR suggested that all polysaccharide extracts had α- and β-d-mannopyranose, d-glucopyranose, d-galactopyranose, α-l-arabinofuranose, and α-l-fucopyranose residues. Approximate molecular weights of polysaccharide extracts were determined by HPLC (high-performance liquid chromatography). The best antioxidant activity was found in M. procera polysaccharide extract in DPPH• (1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl) scavenging (39.03% at 800 μg/mL), CUPRAC (cupric reducing antioxidant capacity) (A0.50: 387.50 μg/mL), and PRAP (phosphomolybdenum reducing antioxidant power) (A0.50: 384.08 μg/mL) assays. C. truncatus polysaccharide extract showed the highest antioxidant activity in ABTS•+ scavenging (IC50: 734.09 μg/mL), β-carotene-linoleic acid (IC50: 472.16 μg/mL), and iron chelating (IC50: 180.35 μg/mL) assays. Significant anticancer activity was found in C. truncatus polysaccharide extract on HT-29 (IC50: 46.49 μg/mL) and HepG2 (IC50: 48.50 μg/mL) cell lines and H. pudorinus polysaccharide extract on the HeLa cell line (IC50: 51.64 μg/mL). Also, H. pudorinus polysaccharide extract possessed prominent AChE (acetylcholinesterase) inhibition activity (49.14% at 200 μg/mL).

Biocontrol potential of endophytic Bacillus subtilis A9 against rot disease of Morchella esculenta

Introduction

Morchella esculenta is a popular edible fungus with high economic and nutritional value. However, the rot disease caused by Lecanicillium aphanocladii, pose a serious threat to the quality and yield of M. esculenta. Biological control is one of the effective ways to control fungal diseases.

Methods and results

In this study, an effective endophytic B. subtilis A9 for the control of M. esculenta rot disease was screened, and its biocontrol mechanism was studied by transcriptome analysis. In total, 122 strains of endophytic bacteria from M. esculenta, of which the antagonistic effect of Bacillus subtilis A9 on L. aphanocladii G1 reached 72.2% in vitro tests. Biological characteristics and genomic features of B. subtilis A9 were analyzed, and key antibiotic gene clusters were detected. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) observation showed that B. subtilis A9 affected the mycelium and spores of L. aphanocladii G1. In field experiments, the biological control effect of B. subtilis A9 reached to 62.5%. Furthermore, the transcritome profiling provides evidence of B. subtilis A9 bicontrol at the molecular level. A total of 1,246 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified between the treatment and control group. Gene Ontology (GO) enrichment analysis showed that a large number of DEGs were related to antioxidant activity related. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment analysis showed that the main pathways were Nitrogen metabolism, Pentose Phosphate Pathway (PPP) and Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases (MAPK) signal pathway. Among them, some important genes such as carbonic anhydrase CA (H6S33_007248), catalase CAT (H6S33_001409), tRNA dihydrouridine synthase DusB (H6S33_001297) and NAD(P)-binding protein NAD(P) BP (H6S33_000823) were found. Furthermore, B. subtilis A9 considerably enhanced the M. esculenta activity of Polyphenol oxidase (POD), Superoxide dismutase (SOD), Phenylal anineammonia lyase (PAL) and Catalase (CAT).

Conclusion

This study presents the innovative utilization of B. subtilis A9, for effectively controlling M. esculenta rot disease. This will lay a foundation for biological control in Morchella, which may lead to the improvement of new biocontrol agents for production.

Extraction, structure and antioxidant activity of the polysaccharides from morels (Morchella spp.): A review

Morels (Morchella spp.), which are cultivated only in a few regions of the world, are edible mushrooms known for their various properties including antioxidation, immune regulation, antiinflammation, and antitumor effects. Polysaccharides from Morchella are principally responsible for its antioxidant activity. This paper reviews the extraction, purification, structural analysis and antioxidant activity of Morchella polysaccharides (MPs), providing updated research progress. Meanwhile, the structural-property relationships of MPs were further discussed. In addition, based on in vitro and in vivo studies, the major factors responsible for the antioxidant activity of MPs were summarized including scavenging free radicals, reduction capacity, inhibitory lipid peroxidation activity, regulating the signal transduction pathway, reducing the production of ROS and NO, etc. Finally, we hope that our research can provide a reference for further research and development of MPs.

Eco-Friendly and Efficient Extraction of Polysaccharides from Acanthopanax senticosus by Ultrasound-Assisted Deep Eutectic Solvent

A green extraction method was developed using deep eutectic solvent extraction for the polysaccharide from Acanthopanax senticosus (A. senticosus). Among the eight types of DES prepared, the DES with a ratio of 1:4 L-malic acid to L-proline was found to be a suitable extraction solvent based on the extraction efficiency. The extraction parameters were optimized by Plackett-Burman and response surface methodology (RSM). The best extraction conditions were found for L-malic acid. Under the conditions of an L-malic acid/L-proline ratio of 1:4, ultrasonic power of 240 W, material-liquid ratio of 31.068 g/mL, water content of 32.364%, extraction time of 129.119 min, and extraction temperature of 60 °C, the extraction rate of A. senticosus polysaccharides was 35.452 ± 0.388 mg-g-1. This rate was higher than that of polysaccharides obtained by hot water extraction (13.652 ± 0.09 mg-g-1). The experimental results were best fitted by the quasi-secondary kinetic model when compared to two other kinetic models. Electron microscopic observations showed that DESs were more destructive to plant cells. The polysaccharide extracted from DESs had more monosaccharide components, a lower molecular weight, a higher antioxidant capacity, and superior anti-glycation activity compared to polysaccharides extracted from water (ASPS-PW). This study demonstrates the effectiveness of DESs in obtaining polysaccharides from A. senticosus.

Antioxidant activity of Phellinus igniarius fermentation mycelia contributions of different solvent extractions and their inhibitory effect on α-amylase

Phellinus spp. have historically been used as traditional medicines to treat various diseases owing to their antioxidant, antitumor, and antidiabetic activities. Polysaccharides exhibit antidiabetic activity. In the present study, the polysaccharide contents of four Phellinus strains were compared. Phellinus igniarius QB72 possessed higher polysaccharide production, stronger 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging, and α-amylase inhibitory activity. The three polysaccharides were sequentially extracted and partially purified from the fermentation mycelia using hot water, 1 % (NH4)2C2O4, and 1.25 M NaOH. Hot water extract polysaccharides exhibited higher DPPH radical scavenging and strong inhibitory activity against α-amylase with an IC50 value of 6.84 ± 0.37 mg/mL. The carbohydrate content of A1 (approximately 17457 Da) was approximately 88.28 %. The α-amylase inhibitory activity IC50 was decreased (3.178 ± 0.187 mg/mL) after DEAE water elution. P. igniarius QB72 hot-water extracts of partially purified polysaccharides have great potential as α-amylase inhibitors in food and medication-assisted additives.

Antimicrobial Activity of Three Italian Strains of Morchella esculenta (Ascomycota)

Three genetically identified and morphologically characterized strains (MesAQ2-C, MesAQ6-2 and MesFI2-3) of the culinary-medicinal ascomycete mushroom Morchella esculenta (L.) Pers. collected in central-north Italy have been studied for their antifungal and antibacterial activities. The obtained data showed that mycelium of M. esculenta possess variable antimicrobial activity against four test fungi (Chrysosporium keratinophilum, Microsporum gypseum, Trichophyton terrestre, Penicillium griseofulvum), as well as one Gram positive (Staphylococcus aureus) and three Gram negative (Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium, Pseudomonas aeruginosa) test bacteria potentially pathogenic for humans and animals. Up to 20.4% of inhibition of the average mycelial growth rate (GRavr) of test fungi in dual culture experiment was detected. The samples of cultural liquid (CL) and mycelial extract (ME) obtained by static cultivation of M. esculenta strains showed up to 13.9 and 23.0% of GRavr inhibition of test fungi, respectively. Similarly, the inhibition of the bacterial colonies by CL and ME samples was 34.1 and 32.3%, respectively in comparison with the control with streptomycin indicating almost equal secretion of both intra- and extracellular antimicrobial compounds by M. esculenta mycelium. As a producer of antimicrobial compounds among tested M. esculenta strains, MesAQ2-C was the most effective. It may be considered for further myco-pharmacological research to develop mushroom-based antimicrobial biotech products with biomedical significance.

Untargeted metabolomics reveals sour jujube kernel benefiting the nutritional value and flavor of Morchella esculenta

Nucleosides, organic acids, and amino acids separated from Morchella esculenta are well known for their nutritional value and flavor. However, how to increase their content in a better way has been a challenge. In this study, the effect of adding jujube kernel on the active components of M. esculenta was investigated by untargeted metabolomics using UPLC-MS/MS. A total of 1,243 metabolites were identified, of which 262 metabolites (21.078%) were organic acids and derivatives, 245 metabolites (19.71%) were lipids and lipid-like molecules, and 26 metabolites (2.092%) were nucleosides, nucleotides, and analogues. Subsequently, differential metabolites between groups were screened by the orthogonal partial least squares-discriminant analysis model, which showed that 256 metabolites were identified as significantly different for the positive ion model and 149 for the negative ion model. Moreover, significant differential metabolites (VIP > 1, P < 0.05) in annotation of kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes pathway were investigated, which showed that ABC transporters were the most commonly observed transporters, followed by pyrimidine metabolism and purine metabolism. The results indicated that the main components of jujube kernel might be conducive to the accumulation of nucleoside organic acids and amino acid metabolites in M. esculenta. These results provide important information for the understanding of more suitable way for cultivation of M. esculenta.

Advance in Morchella sp. polysaccharides: Isolation, structural characterization and structure-activity relationship: A review

Morchella sp. is a kind of precious medicinal and edible fungus with a unique flavor and is rich in various amino acids and organic germanium needed by the human body. Most notably, Morchella sp. polysaccharides have attracted widespread attention due to their significant bioactivity in recent years. At present, extensive studies have been carried out on the extraction methods, structural characterization and activity evaluation of Morchella sp. polysaccharides, which provides a good theoretical basis for its further development and application. However, the systematic summary of the related research of Morchella sp. polysaccharides has not been reported yet. Therefore, this review mainly focused on the isolation and purification methods, structural characterization, biological activities and structure-activity relationship of Morchella sp. polysaccharides. This work will help to have a better in-depth understanding of Morchella sp. polysaccharides and provide a scientific basis and direct reference for more scientific and rational applications.

Tracing the Path between Mushrooms and Alzheimer's Disease-A Literature Review

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is well-known among neurodegenerative diseases for the decline of cognitive functions, making overall daily tasks difficult or impossible. The disease prevails as the most common form of dementia and remains without a well-defined etiology. Being considered a disease of multifactorial origin, current targeted treatments have only managed to reduce or control symptoms, and to date, only two drugs are close to being able to halt its progression. For decades, natural compounds produced by living organisms have been at the forefront of research for new therapies. Mushrooms, which are well-known for their nutritional and medicinal properties, have also been studied for their potential use in the treatment of AD. Natural products derived from mushrooms have shown to be beneficial in several AD-related mechanisms, including the inhibition of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and β-secretase (BACE 1); the prevention of amyloid beta (Aβ) aggregation and neurotoxicity; and the prevention of Tau expression and aggregation, as well as antioxidant and anti-inflammatory potential. Several studies in the literature relate mushrooms to neurodegenerative diseases. However, to the best of our knowledge, there is no publication that summarizes only AD data. In this context, this review aims to link the therapeutic potential of mushrooms to AD by compiling the anti-AD potential of different mushroom extracts or isolated compounds, targeting known AD-related mechanisms.

Characterization and in-vitro Alzheimer's properties of exopolysaccharide from Bacillus maritimus MSM1

Four bacterial isolates were obtained from marine sediments collected from Sahl Hashish, Hurghada Red Sea, Egypt. This study was designed to search for promising anti-Alzheimer natural polysaccharide; therefore, four isolates were screened for exopolysaccharides (EPSs) production and acetylcholinesterase inhibition. The isolate S16 provided the highest EPS yield (7.51 g/L) and acetylcholinesterase inhibition. It was identified morphologically and genetically using 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis as Bacillus maritimus. A Physicochemical analysis of S16 exopolysaccharide (BMEPS) was estimated, which pointed to the presence of uronic acid and sulfate (24.7% and 18.3%, respectively). HPLC analysis indicated that mannuronic acid, glucuronic acid, glucose, and mannose are presented in a molar ratio of 0.8:1.0:2.8:2.3, respectively. Furthermore, FT-IR revealed an abundance of β-configurations. The GPC estimated the average molecular weight (Mw) as 4.31 × 104 g/mol. BMEPS inhibited AChE (IC50; 691.77 ± 8.65 μg/ ml), BChE (IC50; 288.27 ± 10.50 μg/ ml), and tyrosinase (IC50; 3.34 ± 0.09, 14.00 ± 0.14, and 22.96 ± 1.23 μg/ ml during incubation durations of 10, 20, and 40 min). It also demonstrated a selective anti-inflammatory action against COX-2 rather than COX-1. Moreover, BMEPS exhibited antioxidant capabilities as free radical and oxygen reactive species (ROS) scavenger, metal chelator, reductant agent, and lipid peroxidation suppressor. These activities are due to the distinct chemical composition. The findings of this study indicate that BMEPS could be considered as promising anti-disease Alzheimer's (AD) material in an in-vitro model, which qualifies it for advanced in-vivo studies in the discovery of alternative Alzheimer's treatment.

The benefits of edible mushroom polysaccharides for health and their influence on gut microbiota: a review

The gut microbiome is a complex biological community that deeply affects various aspects of human health, including dietary intake, disease progression, drug metabolism, and immune system regulation. Edible mushroom polysaccharides (EMPs) are bioactive fibers derived from mushrooms that possess a range of beneficial properties, including anti-tumor, antioxidant, antiviral, hypoglycemic, and immunomodulatory effects. Studies have demonstrated that EMPs are resistant to human digestive enzymes and serve as a crucial source of energy for the gut microbiome, promoting the growth of beneficial bacteria. EMPs also positively impact human health by modulating the composition of the gut microbiome. This review discusses the extraction and purification processes of EMPs, their potential to improve health conditions by regulating the composition of the gut microbiome, and their application prospects. Furthermore, this paper provides valuable guidance and recommendations for future studies on EMPs consumption in disease management.

Alzheimer's disease: Molecular aspects and treatment opportunities using herbal drugs

Alzheimer's disease (AD), also called senile dementia, is the most common neurological disorder. Around 50 million people, mostly of advanced age, are suffering from dementia worldwide and this is expected to reach 100-130 million between 2040 and 2050. AD is characterized by impaired glutamatergic and cholinergic neurotransmission, which is associated with clinical and pathological symptoms. AD is characterized clinically by loss of cognition and memory impairment and pathologically by senile plaques formed by Amyloid β deposits or neurofibrillary tangles (NFT) consisting of aggregated tau proteins. Amyloid β deposits are responsible for glutamatergic dysfunction that develops NMDA dependent Ca2+ influx into postsynaptic neurons generating slow excitotoxicity process leading to oxidative stress and finally impaired cognition and neuronal loss. Amyloid decreases acetylcholine release, synthesis and neuronal transport. The decreased levels of neurotransmitter acetylcholine, neuronal loss, tau aggregation, amyloid β plaques, increased oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, bio-metal dyshomeostasis, autophagy, cell cycle dysregulation, mitochondrial dysfunction, and endoplasmic reticulum dysfunction are the factors responsible for the pathogenesis of AD. Acetylcholinesterase, NMDA, Glutamate, BACE1, 5HT6, and RAGE (Receptors for Advanced Glycation End products) are receptors targeted in treatment of AD. The FDA approved acetylcholinesterase inhibitors Donepezil, Galantamine and Rivastigmine and N-methyl-D-aspartate antagonist Memantine provide symptomatic relief. Different therapies such as amyloid β therapies, tau-based therapies, neurotransmitter-based therapies, autophagy-based therapies, multi-target therapeutic strategies, and gene therapy modify the natural course of the disease. Herbal and food intake is also important as preventive strategy and recently focus has also been placed on herbal drugs for treatment. This review focuses on the molecular aspects, pathogenesis and recent studies that signifies the potential of medicinal plants and their extracts or chemical constituents for the treatment of degenerative symptoms related to AD.

Multiple Metabolites Derived from Mushrooms and Their Beneficial Effect on Alzheimer's Diseases

Mushrooms with edible and medicinal potential have received widespread attention because of their diverse biological functions, nutritional value, and delicious taste, which are closely related to their rich active components. To date, many bioactive substances have been identified and purified from mushrooms, including proteins, carbohydrates, phenols, and vitamins. More importantly, molecules derived from mushrooms show great potential to alleviate the pathological manifestations of Alzheimer's disease (AD), which seriously affects the health of elderly people. Compared with current therapeutic strategies aimed at symptomatic improvement, it is particularly important to identify natural products from resource-rich mushrooms that can modify the progression of AD. This review summarizes recent investigations of multiple constituents (carbohydrates, peptides, phenols, etc.) isolated from mushrooms to combat AD. In addition, the underlying molecular mechanisms of mushroom metabolites against AD are discussed. The various mechanisms involved in the antiAD activities of mushroom metabolites include antioxidant and anti-neuroinflammatory effects, apoptosis inhibition, and stimulation of neurite outgrowth, etc. This information will facilitate the application of mushroom-derived products in the treatment of AD. However, isolation of new metabolites from multiple types of mushrooms and further in vivo exploration of the molecular mechanisms underlying their antiAD effect are still required.

Enhancement of Growth and Synthesis of Extracellular Enzymes of Morchella sextelata Induced by Co-culturing with Trichoderma

Trichoderma is a genus of common filamentous fungi that display a various range of lifestyles and interactions with other fungi. The interaction of Trichoderma with Morchella sextelata was explored in this study. Trichoderma sp. T-002 was isolated from a wild fruiting body of Morchella sextelata M-001 and identified as a closely related species of Trichoderma songyi based on morphological chracteristics and phylogenetic analysis of translation elongation factor1-alpha and inter transcribed spacer of rDNA. Further, we focussed on the influence of dry mycelia of T-002 on the growth and synthesis of extracellular enzymes of M-001. Among different treatments, M-001 showed the highest growth of mycelia with an optimal supplement of 0.33 g/100 mL of T-002. Activities of extracellular enzymes of M-001 were enhanced significantly by the optimal supplement treatment. Overall, T-002, a unique Trichoderma species, had a positive effect on mycelial growth and synthesis of extracellular enzymes of M-001.

Synthesis, characterization, and cytotoxicity analysis of selenium nanoparticles stabilized by Morchella sextelata polysaccharide

Natural bioactive molecules have been widely used as stabilizers in the functional improvement of selenium nanoparticles (SeNPs) in recent years. In this study, Morchella sextelata polysaccharide (MSP) was introduced as a novel stabilizer for the synthesis of SeNPs based on the redox system of sodium selenite and ascorbic acid. The size, morphology, stability, and anti-cancer cell activities were respectively analyzed by various methods. The results showed that the synthesized SeNPs with MSP were 72.07 ± 0.53 nm in size, red in color, spherical in shape, and amorphous in nature. MSP-SeNPs showed high scavenging activity against DPPH and ABTS radicals. And, these MSP-SeNPs exhibited a significant anti-proliferation effect on human liver (HepG2) and cervical cancer (Hela) cells in vitro, while no significant cytotoxicity against normal human kidney cells (HK-2) was observed. Moreover, the mitochondria-dependent apoptosis pathway triggered by MSP-SeNPs in HepG2 cell was identified. The expression levels of p53, Bax, cytochrome c, caspase-3 and caspase-9 were all up-regulated in HepG2 cells after MSP-SeNPs treatment, while Bcl-2 expression was down-regulated. These results suggest that MSP-SeNPs have strong potential as the food supplement for application in cancer chemoprevention.

Polysaccharides-Naturally Occurring Immune Modulators

The prevention of disease and infection requires immune systems that operate effectively. This is accomplished by the elimination of infections and abnormal cells. Immune or biological therapy treats disease by either stimulating or inhibiting the immune system, dependent upon the circumstances. In plants, animals, and microbes, polysaccharides are abundant biomacromolecules. Due to the intricacy of their structure, polysaccharides may interact with and impact the immune response; hence, they play a crucial role in the treatment of several human illnesses. There is an urgent need for the identification of natural biomolecules that may prevent infection and treat chronic disease. This article addresses some of the naturally occurring polysaccharides of known therapeutic potential that have already been identified. This article also discusses extraction methods and immunological modulatory capabilities.

Cultivation, nutritional value, bioactive compounds of morels, and their health benefits: A systematic review

Morels are valuable mushrooms being used as foods and medical substances for a long history. The commonly cultivated morel species include M. eximia, M. importuna, and M. sextelata in China, M. conica and M. esculenta in the US. Morels' nutritional profile mainly consists of carbohydrates, proteins, fatty acids, vitamins, minerals, and organic acids, which are also responsible for its complex sensory attributes and health benefits. The bioactive compounds in morels including polysaccharides, phenolics, tocopherols, and ergosterols contribute to the anti-oxidative abilities, anti-inflammation, immunoprotection, gut health preservation, and anti-cancer abilities. This review depicted on the cultivation of morels, major bioactive compounds of different morel species both from fruit bodies and mycelia, and their health benefits to provide a comprehensive understanding of morels and support the future research and applications of morels as high-value functional food sources.

Antioxidative and Protective Effect of Morchella esculenta against Dextran Sulfate Sodium-Induced Alterations in Liver

Morchella esculenta is an edible mushroom with special flavor and high nutritional value for humans, primarily owing to its polysaccharide constituents. M. esculenta polysaccharides (MEPs) possess remarkable pharmaceutical properties, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, and anti-atherogenic activities. The aim of this study was to evaluate the in vitro and in vivo antioxidant potential of MEPs. In vitro activity was determined using free radical scavenging assays, whereas in vivo activity was evaluated through dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced liver injury in mice with acute colitis. MEPs effectively scavenged 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl and 2,2-azinobis-6-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline sulfonic acid) free radicals in a dose-dependent manner. Additionally, DSS-induced mice showed severe liver damage, cellular infiltration, tissue necrosis, and decreased antioxidant capacity. In contrast, intragastric administration of MEPs showed hepatoprotective effects against DSS-induced liver injury. MEPs remarkably elevated the expression levels of superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, and catalase. Additionally, it decreased malondialdehyde and myeloperoxidase levels in the liver. These results indicate that the protective effects of MEP against DSS-induced hepatic injury could rely on its ability to reduce oxidative stress, suppress inflammatory responses, and improve antioxidant enzyme activity in the liver. Therefore, MEPs could be explored as potential natural antioxidant agents in medicine or as functional foods to prevent liver injury.

Extraction, Characterization, and Antioxidant Activity of Polysaccharides from Ajwa Seed and Flesh

The date palm has been cultivated in dry and hot areas of the planet for much of human history. In the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, dates are the main crop used as a source of food. Among several species of date fruits, the Ajwa AL-Madinah date is unique, growing only in Al-Madinah geographical region. The Ajwa date is used in traditional medicine due to its abundant active components and therapeutic properties. This study investigates the structural properties and the antioxidant effects of water-soluble polysaccharides extracted from Ajwa flesh and seed. The polysaccharides were isolated by two techniques including hot water and ultrasonic extraction. After isolation and partial purification, the physicochemical properties of four samples of polysaccharides extracted from flesh and seed were studied by several techniques including FTIR, solid-state NMR, elemental analysis, and mass spectrometry. Several radical scavenging experiments were combined to study the antioxidant activity of the polysaccharide compounds. FTIR and NMR results showed a structure typical of heterogeneous polysaccharides. Mass spectrometry revealed that the polysaccharide samples were composed mainly of mannose, glucose, galactose, xylose, arabinose, galacturonic acid, and fucose. In addition, the physicochemical properties and composition of polysaccharides extracted from flesh and seed were compared. The extracted polysaccharides showed antioxidant activity, with 2, 2′-azinobis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) radical scavenging, Fe chelating ability, hydroxyl free radical scavenging ability, and 2, 2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging. These results highlight their potential to be a useful nutritional element or supplemental medication.

Preparation, characterization and bioactivities of selenized polysaccharides from Lonicera caerulea L. fruits

Native polysaccharide was obtained from Lonicera caerulea L. fruits (PLP). Two selenized polysaccharides (PSLP-1 and PSLP-2) were synthesized by the microwave-assisted HNO₃-Na₂SeO₃ method, where the selenium (Se) contents were 228 ± 24 and 353 ± 36 μg/g, respectively. The molecular weights of PLP, PSLP-1, and PSLP-2 were 5.9 × 10⁴, 5.6 × 10⁴, and 5.1 × 10⁴ kDa, respectively. PSLP-1 and PSLP-2 contained the same type of monosaccharides as PLP but with different molar ratios. The main chain structure of the native polysaccharide was not changed after selenization. PLP, PSLP-1, and PSLP-2 contained the same six types of glycosidic bonds. Bioactivity assays revealed that the two selenized polysaccharides possessed better antioxidant activities than PLP, but their bile acid-binding abilities and inhibitory activities on acetylcholinesterase (AChE) had weakened. In summary, PLP, PSLP-1, and PSLP-2 may be promising Se supplements in functional foods and inhibitors for the treatment of AChE.

The Interaction between Mushroom Polysaccharides and Gut Microbiota and Their Effect on Human Health: A Review

Mushroom polysaccharides are a kind of biological macromolecule extracted from the fruiting body, mycelium or fermentation liquid of edible fungi. In recent years, the research on mushroom polysaccharides for alleviating metabolic diseases, inflammatory bowel diseases, cancers and other symptoms by changing the intestinal microenvironment has been increasing. Mushroom polysaccharides could promote human health by regulating gut microbiota, increasing the production of short-chain fatty acids, improving intestinal mucosal barrier, regulating lipid metabolism and activating specific signaling pathways. Notably, these biological activities are closely related to the molecular weight, monosaccharide composition and type of the glycosidic bond of mushroom polysaccharide. This review aims to summarize the latest studies: (1) Regulatory effects of mushroom polysaccharides on gut microbiota; (2) The effect of mushroom polysaccharide structure on gut microbiota; (3) Metabolism of mushroom polysaccharides by gut microbiota; and (4) Effects of mushroom polysaccharides on gut microbe-mediated diseases. It provides a theoretical basis for further exploring the mechanism of mushroom polysaccharides for regulating gut microbiota and gives a reference for developing and utilizing mushroom polysaccharides as promising prebiotics in the future.

Food and Antioxidant Supplements with Therapeutic Properties of Morchella esculenta (Ascomycetes): A Review

Morchella esculenta, commonly known as yellow morels, is an edible and medicinal mushroom popular worldwide for its unique flavor and culinary purposes. The traditional medical system effectively uses morels against infertility, fatigue, cancer, muscular pain, cough, and cold. The M. esculenta possesses many health-promoting nutritional components such as mono and polyunsaturated fatty acids, polyphenols, protein hydrolysates, vitamins, amino acids and minerals. The potential medicinal properties of morels is due to polysaccharides (galactomannan, chitin, β-glucans, and β-1,3-1,6-glucan) present that has high economic importance worldwide. Polysaccharides present possess a broad spectrum of biological activities such as anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, anti-diabetic, and antioxidant. However, the toxicity and clinical trials to prove its safety and efficacy for medicinal uses are yet to be evaluated. Moreover, the separation, purification, identification, and structural elucidation of active compounds responsible for the unique flavors and biological activities are still lacking in M. esculenta. The available information provides a new base for future perspectives. It highlights the need for further studies of this potent medicinal mushroom species as a source of beneficial therapeutic drugs and nutraceutical supplements.

Mushroom Polysaccharides as Potential Candidates for Alleviating Neurodegenerative Diseases

Neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) are a widespread and serious global public health burden, particularly among the older population. At present, effective therapies do not exist, despite the increasing understanding of the different mechanisms of NDs. In recent years, some drugs, such as galantamine, entacapone, riluzole, and edaravone, have been proposed for the treatment of different NDs; however, they mainly concentrate on symptom management and confer undesirable side effects and adverse reactions. Therefore, there is an urgent need to find novel drugs with fewer disadvantages and higher efficacy for the treatment of NDs. Mushroom polysaccharides are macromolecular complexes with multi-targeting bioactivities, low toxicity, and high safety. Some have been demonstrated to exhibit neuroprotective effects via their antioxidant, anti-amyloidogenic, anti-neuroinflammatory, anticholinesterase, anti-apoptotic, and anti-neurotoxicity activities, which have potential in the treatment of NDs. This review focuses on the different processes involved in ND development and progression, highlighting the neuroprotective activities and potential role of mushroom polysaccharides and summarizing the limitations and future perspectives of mushroom polysaccharides in the prevention and treatment of NDs.

Determining why continuous cropping reduces the production of the morel Morchella sextelata

Artificial cultivation of Morchella sextelata and other morels is expanding in China, but continuous cropping reduces Morchella for unknown reasons. Here, we investigated soil that had been used or not used for M. sextelata cultivation for 0, 1, and 2 years. We found that the continuous cropping of M. sextelata substantially reduced the pH and the nutrient content of the hyphosphere soil and increased sclerotia formation by M. sextelata. Changes in the structure of bacterial and fungal communities were associated with levels of available nitrogen (N) and phosphorus in the soil. With continuous cropping, the richness and diversity of fungal and bacterial communities increased, but the abundance of Bacillus and Lactobacillus decreased and the abundance of pathogenic fungi increased. FAPROTAX analysis indicated that N cycle functions were enriched more with than without continuous cultivation, and that enrichment of N cycle and sulfate respiration functions was higher in the second than in the first year of cultivation. FunGuild analysis indicated that the functions related to pathotrophs and wood saprotrophs were enriched by M. sextelata cultivation. Overall, the results suggest that continuous cropping may reduce M. sextelata production by acidifying the soil and increasing the abundance of pathogenic fungi. Additional research is needed to determine whether increases in the abundance of pathogenic fungi and changes in soil chemistry result in the declines in production that occur with continuous M. sextelata cultivation.

Extraction, purification, structural characterization, and gut microbiota relationship of polysaccharides: A review

Intestinal dysbiosis is one of the major causes of the occurrence of metabolic syndromes, such as obesity, diabetes, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, and cardiovascular diseases. Polysaccharide-based microbial therapeutic strategies have excellent potential in the treatment of metabolic syndromes, but the underlying regulatory mechanisms remain elusive. Identification of the internal regulatory mechanism of the gut microbiome and the interaction mechanisms involving bacteria and the host are essential to achieve precise control of the gut microbiome and obtain valuable clinical data. Polysaccharides cannot be directly digested; the behavior in the intestinal tract is considered a "bridge" between microbiota and host communication. To provide a relatively comprehensive reference for researchers in the field, we will discuss the polysaccharide extraction and purification processes and chemical and structural characteristics, focusing on the polysaccharides in gut microbiota through the immune system, gut-liver axis, gut-brain axis, energy axis interactions, and potential applications.

Extraction and Fractionation of Prokinetic Phytochemicals from Chrozophora tinctoria and Their Bioactivities

Chrozophora tinctoria is an annual plant of the family Euphorbiaceae, traditionally used as a laxative, a cathartic and an emetic. A methanolic extract of Chrozophora tinctoria (MEC) whole plant and an n-butanol fraction of Chrozophora tinctoria (NBFC) were analyzed by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) to detect the phytochemicals. MEC and NBFC were tested for in vitro anti acetylcholinesterase (AChE) potential. The effect of both samples on intestinal propulsive movement and spasmolytic activity in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) was also studied. About twelve compounds in MEC and three compounds in NBFC were tentatively identified through GC-MS. Some of them are compounds with known therapeutic activity, such as toluene; imipramine; undecane; 14-methyl-pentadecanoic acid methyl ester; and hexadecanoic acid. Both NBFC and MEC samples were checked for acute toxicity and were found to be highly toxic in a dose-dependent manner, causing diarrhea and emesis at 1 g/kg concentration in pigeons, with the highest lethargy and mortality above 3 g/kg. Both the samples of Chrozophora tinctoria revealed significant (p ≤ 0.01) laxative activity against metronidazole (7 mg/kg) and loperamide hydrochloride (4 mg/kg)-induced constipation. NBFC (81.18 ± 2.5%) and MEC (68.28 ± 2.4%) significantly increased charcoal meal intestinal transit compared to distal water (41.15 ± 4.3%). NBFC exhibited a significant relaxant effect (EC₅₀ = 3.40 ± 0.20 mg/mL) in spontaneous rabbit jejunum as compared to MEC (EC₅₀ = 4.34 ± 0.68 mg/kg). Similarly, the impact of NBFC on KCl-induced contraction was more significant than that of MEC (EC₅₀ values of 7.22 ± 0.06 mg/mL and 7.47 ± 0.57 mg/mL, respectively). The present study scientifically validates the folk use of Chrozophora tinctoria in the management of gastrointestinal diseases such as constipation. Further work is needed to isolate the phytochemicals that act as diarrheal agents in Chrozophora tinctoria.

Structural characterization and biological activities of a new polysaccharide isolated from Morchella Sextelata

Morchella is the famous medicinal fungi in the ascomycetes. In this study, a new water-soluble polysaccharide (MSP-3-1) with an average molecular weight of 2.35 × 10⁷ Da was extracted and purified from fruiting bodies of cultivated M. Sextelata. The structural characterization and biological activities of purified polysaccharide was further investigated. The results indicated that MSP-3-1 was mainly a α-glucan, mainly consisting of mannose (Man), glucose (Glc) and galactose (Gal) in a ratio of 5.10: 91.39: 3.51. Its surface morphology exhibited irregular lamellar structures with small voids. And the particle size analysis showed that MSP-3-1 was the homogeneous nanoparticle in water solution. Furthermore, the antioxidant activity analysis showed that MSP-3-1 possessed certain scavenging activity against hydroxyl radicals, DPPH radicals and ABTS radicals in a dose-dependent manner. Immunological tests suggested that MSP-3-1 could significantly promote the proliferation, phagocytosis and nitric oxide (NO) production of macrophage RAW264.7. Thus, our results will provide a theoretical basis for the development and utilization of Morchella Sextelata polysaccharides as an immunmodulatory component in functional foods.

Prokinetic and Laxative Effects of Chrozophora tinctoria Whole Plant Extract

Chrozophora tinctoria (Euphorbiaceae) has been used as an emetic, anthelminthic, and cathartic agent in traditional medicine. We used gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) to characterize the composition of ethyl acetate (EAC) and dichloromethane (DCMC) fractions from the whole Chrozophora tinctoria plant. EAC and DCMC fractions were evaluated for acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitory activity and acute toxicity. Their effects on intestinal propulsive movement and spasmogenic activity of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) muscle were also assessed. The compounds detected in both fractions were mostly fatty acids, with about seven compounds in EAC and 10 in DCMC. These included pharmacologically active compounds such as imipramine, used to treat depression, or hexadecanoic acid methyl ester, an antioxidant. Both EAC and DCMC fractions inhibited acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity with IC₅₀ values of 10 µg and 130 µg, respectively. Both the fractions were found to be toxic in a dose-dependent manner, inducing emesis at 0.5 g or higher and lethargy and mortality from 3–5 g upwards. Similarly, both of the fractions showed laxative activity in metronidazole- and loperamide-induced constipation models. EAC relaxed the intestinal muscle at a lower dose (1 mg/mL) than DCMC. Similarly, the EAC extract showed a significant relaxation effect (EC₅₀ = 0.67 ± 0.15 mg/mL) on KCL-induced contraction in rabbit jejunum as compared to DCMC (EC₅₀ = 5.04 ± 0.05 mg/kg). The present study strongly supports the folklore that this valuable plant is a cathartic agent. Further work is required to isolate and validate the bioactive compounds that act as diarrheal agents in Chrozophora tinctoria.

Preparation and structural properties of selenium modified heteropolysaccharide from the fruits of Akebia quinata and in vitro and in vivo antitumor activity

Cancer is a complex disease, and blocking tumor angiogenesis has become one of the most promising approaches in cancer therapy. Here, an exopoly heteropolysaccharide (AQP70-2B) was firstly isolated from Akebia quinata. Monosaccharide composition indicated that the AQP70-2B was composed of rhamnose, glucose, galactose, and arabinose. The backbone of AQP70-2B consisted of →1)-l-Araf, →3)-l-Araf-(1→, →5)-l-Araf-(1→, →3,5)-l-Araf-(1→, →2,5)-l-Araf-(1→, →4)-d-Glcp-(1→, →6)-d-Galp-(1→, and →1)-d-Rhap residues. Based on the close relationship between selenium and anti-tumor activity, AQP70-2B was modified with selenium to obtain selenized polysaccharide Se-AQP70-2B. Then, a series of methods for analysis and characterization, especially scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy dispersive spectrometry (SEM-EDS), indicated that Se-AQP70-2B was successfully synthesized. Furthermore, zebrafish xenografts and anti-angiogenesis experiments indicated that selenization could improve the antitumor activity by inhibiting tumor cell proliferation and migration and blocking angiogenesis.

Natural Polysaccharides as Preventive and Therapeutic Horizon for Neurodegenerative Diseases

Neurodegenerative diseases are a serious and widespread global public health burden amongst aging populations. The total estimated worldwide global cost of dementia was US$818 billion in 2015 and has been projected to rise to 2 trillion US$ by 2030. While advances have been made to understand different neurodegenerative disease mechanisms, effective therapeutic strategies do not generally exist. Several drugs have been proposed in the last two decades for the treatment of different types of neurodegenerative diseases, with little therapeutic benefit, and often with severe adverse and side effects. Thus, the search for novel drugs with higher efficacy and fewer drawbacks is an ongoing challenge in the treatment of neurodegenerative disease. Several natural compounds including polysaccharides have demonstrated neuroprotective and even therapeutic effects. Natural polysaccharides are widely distributed in plants, animals, algae, bacterial and fungal species, and have received considerable attention for their wide-ranging bioactivity, including their antioxidant, anti-neuroinflammatory, anticholinesterase and anti-amyloidogenic effects. In this review, we summarize different mechanisms involved in neurodegenerative diseases and the neuroprotective effects of natural polysaccharides, highlighting their potential role in the prevention and therapy of neurodegenerative disease.

ACLY Nuclear Translocation in Human Macrophages Drives Proinflammatory Gene Expression by NF-κB Acetylation

Macrophage stimulation by pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) like lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or lipoteichoic acid (LTA) drives a proinflammatory phenotype and induces a metabolic reprogramming to sustain the cell’s function. Nevertheless, the relationship between metabolic shifts and gene expression remains poorly explored. In this context, the metabolic enzyme ATP citrate lyase (ACLY), the producer of citrate-derived acetyl-coenzyme A (CoA), plays a critical role in supporting a proinflammatory response. Through immunocytochemistry and cytosol–nucleus fractionation, we found a short-term ACLY nuclear translocation. Protein immunoprecipitation unveiled the role of nuclear ACLY in NF-κB acetylation and in turn its full activation in human PBMC-derived macrophages. Notably, sepsis in the early hyperinflammatory phase triggers ACLY-mediated NF-κB acetylation. The ACLY/NF-κB axis increases the expression levels of proinflammatory genes, including SLC25A1—which encodes the mitochondrial citrate carrier—and ACLY, thus promoting the existence of a proinflammatory loop involving SLC25A1 and ACLY genes.

Recent Advances on Bioactive Ingredients of Morchella esculenta

Morchella esculenta (M. esculenta) is a delicious edible mushroom prized for its special flavor and strong health promoting abilities. Several bioactive ingredients including polysaccharides, polyphenolic compounds, proteins, and protein hydrolysates all contribute to the biological activities of M. esculenta. Different polysaccharides could be extracted and purified depending on the extraction methods and M. esculenta studied. Monosaccharide composition of M. esculenta polysaccharides (MEP) generally includes mannose, galactose, and glucose, etc. MEP possess multiple bioactivities such as antioxidant, anti-inflammation, immunoregulation, hypoglycemic activity, atherosclerosis prevention and antitumor ability. Other components like polyphenols, protein hydrolysates, and several crude extracts are also reported with strong bioactivities. In terms of potential applications of M. esculenta and its metabolites as nutritional supplements and drug supplements, this review aims to comprehensively summarize the structural characteristics, biological activities, research progress, and research trends of the active ingredients produced by M. esculenta. Among the various biological activities, the substances extracted from both natural collected and submerged fermented M. esculenta are promising for antioxidants, immunomodulation, anti-cancer and anti-inflammatory applications. However, further researches on the extraction conditions and chemical structure of bioactive compounds produced by M. esculenta still need investigations.

Chronic Stress and Oxidative Stress as Common Factors of the Pathogenesis of Depression and Alzheimer's Disease: The Role of Antioxidants in Prevention and Treatment

There is a growing body of scientific research showing the link between depression and dementia in Alzheimer’s disease (AD). The chronic stress contributes to the formation of oxidative stress in the parts of the brain involved in the development of depression and AD. The scientific literature reports the significant role of antioxidants, which are highly effective in treating these diseases. In this review, we have summarized the relationship between chronic stress, oxidative stress, and the changes in the brain they cause occurring in the brain. Among all the compounds showing antioxidant properties, the most promising results in AD treatment were observed for Vitamin E, coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10), melatonin, polyphenols, curcumin, and selenium. In case of depression treatment, the greatest potential was observed in curcumin, zinc, selenium, vitamin E, and saffron.

Exploring the SARS-CoV-2 main protease (Mpro) and RdRp targets by updating current structure-based drug design utilizing co-crystals to combat COVID-19

The unprecedented pandemic of COVID-19 caused by the novel strain of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) engulfs millions of death worldwide. It has directly hit the socio-economic status of the affected countries. There are more than 219 countries badly affected by the COVID-19. There are no particular small molecule inhibitors to combat the dreadful virus. Many antivirals, antimalarials, antiparasitic, antibacterials, immunosuppressive anti-inflammatory, and immune stimulatory agents have been repurposed for the treatment of COVID19. But the exact mechanism of action of these drugs towards COVID-19 targets has not been experimented with yet. Under the effect of chemotherapeutics, the virus may change its genetic material and produces various strains, which are the main reasons behind the dreadful attack of COVID-19. The nuclear genetic components are composed of main protease and RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) which are responsible for producing nascent virion and viral replication in the host cells. To explore the biochemical mechanisms of various small molecule inhibitors, structure-based drug design can be attempted utilizing NMR crystallography. The process identifies and validates the target protein involved in the disease pathogenesis by the binding of a chemical ligand at a well-defined pocket on the protein surface. In this way, the mode of binding of the ligands inside the target cavity can be predicted for the design of potent SARS-CoV-2 inhibitors.