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Santarelli G, Perini G, Salustri A, Palucci I, Rosato R, Palmieri V, Iacovelli C, Bellesi S, Sali M, Sanguinetti M, De Spirito M, Papi M, Delogu G, De Maio F. Unraveling the potential of graphene quantum dots against Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. Front Microbiol 2024; 15:1395815. [PMID: 38774507 PMCID: PMC11107295 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2024.1395815] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2024] [Accepted: 04/22/2024] [Indexed: 05/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction The emergence of drug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) strains has underscored the urgent need for novel therapeutic approaches. Carbon-based nanomaterials, such as graphene oxide (GO), have shown potential in anti-TB activities but suffer from significant toxicity issues. Methods This study explores the anti-TB potential of differently functionalized graphene quantum dots (GQDs) - non-functionalized, L-GQDs, aminated (NH2-GQDs), and carboxylated (COOH-GQDs) - alone and in combination with standard TB drugs (isoniazid, amikacin, and linezolid). Their effects were assessed in both axenic cultures and in vitro infection models. Results GQDs alone did not demonstrate direct mycobactericidal effects nor trapping activity. However, the combination of NH2-GQDs with amikacin significantly reduced CFUs in in vitro models. NH2-GQDs and COOH-GQDs also enhanced the antimicrobial activity of amikacin in infected macrophages, although L-GQDs and COOH-GQDs alone showed no significant activity. Discussion The results suggest that specific types of GQDs, particularly NH2-GQDs, can enhance the efficacy of existing anti-TB drugs. These nanoparticles might serve as effective adjuvants in anti-TB therapy by boosting drug performance and reducing bacterial counts in host cells, highlighting their potential as part of advanced drug delivery systems in tuberculosis treatment. Further investigations are needed to better understand their mechanisms and optimize their use in clinical settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Santarelli
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biotecnologiche di Base, Cliniche Intensivologiche e Perioperatorie-Sezione di Microbiologia, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy
| | - Giordano Perini
- Dipartimento di Neuroscienze, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario “A. Gemelli”, IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Alessandro Salustri
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biotecnologiche di Base, Cliniche Intensivologiche e Perioperatorie-Sezione di Microbiologia, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy
| | - Ivana Palucci
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biotecnologiche di Base, Cliniche Intensivologiche e Perioperatorie-Sezione di Microbiologia, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario “A. Gemelli”, IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Roberto Rosato
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biotecnologiche di Base, Cliniche Intensivologiche e Perioperatorie-Sezione di Microbiologia, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy
| | - Valentina Palmieri
- Dipartimento di Neuroscienze, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy
- Istituto dei Sistemi Complessi, CNR, Rome, Italy
| | - Camilla Iacovelli
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario “A. Gemelli”, IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Silvia Bellesi
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario “A. Gemelli”, IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Michela Sali
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biotecnologiche di Base, Cliniche Intensivologiche e Perioperatorie-Sezione di Microbiologia, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario “A. Gemelli”, IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Maurizio Sanguinetti
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biotecnologiche di Base, Cliniche Intensivologiche e Perioperatorie-Sezione di Microbiologia, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario “A. Gemelli”, IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Marco De Spirito
- Dipartimento di Neuroscienze, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario “A. Gemelli”, IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Massimiliano Papi
- Dipartimento di Neuroscienze, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario “A. Gemelli”, IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Giovanni Delogu
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biotecnologiche di Base, Cliniche Intensivologiche e Perioperatorie-Sezione di Microbiologia, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy
- Mater Olbia Hospital, Olbia, Italy
| | - Flavio De Maio
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario “A. Gemelli”, IRCCS, Rome, Italy
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M K, Mohan Menon P, C GPD, Natarajan C. Interaction of eugenol-based anti-tuberculosis nanoemulsion with bovine serum albumin: A spectroscopic study including Rifampicin, Isoniazid, Pyrazinamide, and Ethambutol. Heliyon 2024; 10:e28306. [PMID: 38571616 PMCID: PMC10987999 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e28306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2023] [Revised: 03/15/2024] [Accepted: 03/15/2024] [Indexed: 04/05/2024] Open
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB), a deadly infectious disease, is primarily caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The misuse of antibiotics has led to the development of drug resistance, prompting researchers to explore new technologies to combat multidrug-resistant Tuberculosis (MDR TB). Phospholipid-based nanotherapeutics, such as nanoemulsions, are gaining traction as they enhance drug solubility, stability, and bioavailability. Our study focuses on the interaction between Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA) and a drug-loaded nanoemulsion based on Eugenol. This nanoemulsion incorporates Eugenol, Clove, cinnamon oil, and first-line anti-tuberculosis drugs like Rifampicin, Isoniazid, Pyrazinamide, and Ethambutol. The primary objective is to assess the biosafety profile of the nanoemulsion upon interaction with BSA. We employed Fluorescence, UV-visible, and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) to analyze this interaction. UV-visible spectroscopy detected changes in hydrophobicity due to structural alterations in BSA near the tryptophan residue, leading to the formation of ground-state complexes. Fluorescence spectroscopy demonstrated that the nanoemulsion effectively quenched fluorescence originating from tryptophan and tyrosine residues. Studies using synchronous and three-dimensional spectroscopy point to a potential modification of the aromatic environment of BSA by the nanoemulsion. Resonance light scattering spectra indicated the formation of large aggregates due to the interaction with the nanoemulsion. The second derivative FTIR spectra showed an increase in the magnitude of secondary structure bands, suggesting a conformational shift. This research has significant pharmacological implications for developing safer, more targeted drug delivery systems. The information obtained from the interaction of the nanoemulsion with the blood carrier protein is vital for the future development of superior carriers with minimal adverse effects on patients. It is crucial to remember that conformational changes brought on by drug-ligand complexes attaching to carrier proteins may have negative consequences. Therefore, this study enhances the in vitro evaluation of potential adverse effects of the nanoemulsion on serum proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keerthana M
- Centre for Nanobiotechnology, VIT University, Vellore-632014, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Parvathy Mohan Menon
- Department of Integrative Biology, School of Bio Sciences and Technology, VIT University, Vellore-632014, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - George Priya Doss C
- Department of Integrative Biology, School of Bio Sciences and Technology, VIT University, Vellore-632014, Tamil Nadu, India
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Shenoy V, Gunda R, Noble C, Haraguchi A, Stevenson S, Daniel J. Fullertubes inhibit mycobacterial viability and prevent biofilm formation by disrupting the cell wall. Cell Biochem Funct 2024; 42:e3963. [PMID: 38424684 DOI: 10.1002/cbf.3963] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2023] [Revised: 01/31/2024] [Accepted: 02/21/2024] [Indexed: 03/02/2024]
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis and nontuberculous mycobacteria such as Mycobacterium abscessus cause diseases that are becoming increasingly difficult to treat due to emerging antibiotic resistance. The development of new antimicrobial molecules is vital for combating these pathogens. Carbon nanomaterials (CNMs) are a class of carbon-containing nanoparticles with promising antimicrobial effects. Fullertubes (C90 ) are novel carbon allotropes with a structure unique among CNMs. The effects of fullertubes on any living cell have not been studied. In this study, we demonstrate that pristine fullertube dispersions show antimicrobial effects on Mycobacterium smegmatis and M. abscessus. Using scanning electron microscopy, light microscopy, and molecular probes, we investigated the effects of these CNMs on mycobacterial cell viability, cellular integrity, and biofilm formation. C90 fullertubes at 1 µM inhibited mycobacterial viability by 97%. Scanning electron microscopy revealed that the cell wall structure of M. smegmatis and M. abscessus was severely damaged within 24 h of exposure to fullertubes. Additionally, exposure to fullertubes nearly abrogated the acid-fast staining property of M. smegmatis. Using SYTO-9 and propidium iodide, we show that exposure to the novel fullertubes compromises the integrity of the mycobacterial cell. We also show that the permeability of the mycobacterial cell wall was increased after exposure to fullertubes from our assays utilizing the molecular probe dichlorofluorescein and ethidium bromide transport. C90 fullertubes at 0.37 µM and C60 fullerenes at 0.56 µM inhibited pellicle biofilm formation by 70% and 90%, respectively. This is the first report on the antimycobacterial activities of fullertubes and fullerenes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Varun Shenoy
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University Fort Wayne, Fort Wayne, Indiana, USA
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Purdue University Fort Wayne, Fort Wayne, Indiana, USA
| | - Rashmika Gunda
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University Fort Wayne, Fort Wayne, Indiana, USA
| | - Cora Noble
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Purdue University Fort Wayne, Fort Wayne, Indiana, USA
| | - Annalisa Haraguchi
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University Fort Wayne, Fort Wayne, Indiana, USA
| | - Steven Stevenson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Purdue University Fort Wayne, Fort Wayne, Indiana, USA
| | - Jaiyanth Daniel
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University Fort Wayne, Fort Wayne, Indiana, USA
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Nair A, Greeny A, Nandan A, Sah RK, Jose A, Dyawanapelly S, Junnuthula V, K V A, Sadanandan P. Advanced drug delivery and therapeutic strategies for tuberculosis treatment. J Nanobiotechnology 2023; 21:414. [PMID: 37946240 PMCID: PMC10634178 DOI: 10.1186/s12951-023-02156-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2023] [Accepted: 10/11/2023] [Indexed: 11/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) remains a significant global health challenge, necessitating innovative approaches for effective treatment. Conventional TB therapy encounters several limitations, including extended treatment duration, drug resistance, patient noncompliance, poor bioavailability, and suboptimal targeting. Advanced drug delivery strategies have emerged as a promising approach to address these challenges. They have the potential to enhance therapeutic outcomes and improve TB patient compliance by providing benefits such as multiple drug encapsulation, sustained release, targeted delivery, reduced dosing frequency, and minimal side effects. This review examines the current landscape of drug delivery strategies for effective TB management, specifically highlighting lipid nanoparticles, polymer nanoparticles, inorganic nanoparticles, emulsion-based systems, carbon nanotubes, graphene, and hydrogels as promising approaches. Furthermore, emerging therapeutic strategies like targeted therapy, long-acting therapeutics, extrapulmonary therapy, phototherapy, and immunotherapy are emphasized. The review also discusses the future trajectory and challenges of developing drug delivery systems for TB. In conclusion, nanomedicine has made substantial progress in addressing the challenges posed by conventional TB drugs. Moreover, by harnessing the unique targeting abilities, extended duration of action, and specificity of advanced therapeutics, innovative solutions are offered that have the potential to revolutionize TB therapy, thereby enhancing treatment outcomes and patient compliance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayushi Nair
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Amrita School of Pharmacy, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, AIMS Health Sciences Campus, Kochi, 682 041, Kerala, India
| | - Alosh Greeny
- Amrita School of Pharmacy, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, AIMS Health Sciences Campus, Kochi, 682 041, Kerala, India
| | - Amritasree Nandan
- Amrita School of Pharmacy, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, AIMS Health Sciences Campus, Kochi, 682 041, Kerala, India
| | - Ranjay Kumar Sah
- Amrita School of Pharmacy, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, AIMS Health Sciences Campus, Kochi, 682 041, Kerala, India
| | - Anju Jose
- Department of Pharmacology, Amrita School of Pharmacy, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, AIMS Health Sciences Campus, Kochi, 682 041, Kerala, India
| | - Sathish Dyawanapelly
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology, Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai, 400019, India
| | | | - Athira K V
- Department of Pharmacology, Amrita School of Pharmacy, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, AIMS Health Sciences Campus, Kochi, 682 041, Kerala, India.
| | - Prashant Sadanandan
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Amrita School of Pharmacy, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, AIMS Health Sciences Campus, Kochi, 682 041, Kerala, India.
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5
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Papi M, De Spirito M, Palmieri V. Nanotechnology in the COVID-19 era: Carbon-based nanomaterials as a promising solution. CARBON 2023; 210:118058. [PMID: 37151958 PMCID: PMC10148660 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbon.2023.118058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2023] [Revised: 04/20/2023] [Accepted: 04/25/2023] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
The Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has led to collaboration between nanotechnology scientists, industry stakeholders, and clinicians to develop solutions for diagnostics, prevention, and treatment of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infections. Nanomaterials, including carbon-based materials (CBM) such as graphene and carbon nanotubes, have been studied for their potential in viral research. CBM unique effects on microorganisms, immune interaction, and sensitivity in diagnostics have made them a promising subject of SARS-CoV-2 research. This review discusses the interaction of CBM with SARS-CoV-2 and their applicability, including CBM physical and chemical properties, the known interactions between CBM and viral components, and the proposed prevention, treatment, and diagnostics uses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Massimiliano Papi
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario "A. Gemelli" IRCSS, Largo A. Gemelli, 8 00168, Rome, Italy
- Dipartimento di Neuroscienze, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Largo Francesco Vito 1, 00168, Italy
| | - Marco De Spirito
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario "A. Gemelli" IRCSS, Largo A. Gemelli, 8 00168, Rome, Italy
- Dipartimento di Neuroscienze, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Largo Francesco Vito 1, 00168, Italy
| | - Valentina Palmieri
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario "A. Gemelli" IRCSS, Largo A. Gemelli, 8 00168, Rome, Italy
- Istituto dei Sistemi Complessi, CNR, Via dei Taurini 19, 00185, Rome, Italy
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6
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Abu Elella MH, Goda ES, Abdallah HM, Abdel-Aziz MM, Gamal H. Green engineering of TMC-CMS nanoparticles decorated graphene sheets for targeting M. tuberculosis. Carbohydr Polym 2023; 303:120443. [PMID: 36657855 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2022.120443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2022] [Revised: 11/20/2022] [Accepted: 12/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Our current work intends to primarily engineer a new type of antibacterial composite by preparing a highly biocompatible graphene sheet decorated with TMC-CMS IPNs nanoparticles utilizing one-pot, green, cost-effective ultrasonication approach. The microstructure of as-formed materials was chemically confirmed using various analytical techniques such as 1H-NMR, FTIR, UV/vis, SEM, and TEM. TEM data has proved the formation of uniformly distributed TCNPs on graphene surfaces with a small particle size of ~22 nm compared with that of pure nanoparticles (~30 nm). The inhibitory activity of these developed materials was examined against the growth of three different M. tuberculosis pathogens and in a comparison with the isoniazid drug as a standard anti-tuberculosis drug. The TCNPs@GRP composite attained MIC values of 0.98, 3.9, and 7.81 μg/mL for inhibiting the growth of sensitive, MDR, and XDR M. tuberculosis pathogens compared to the bare TCNPs (7.81, 31.25, >125 μg/mL) and the isoniazid drug (0.24, 0, 0 μg/mL), respectively. This reveals a considerable synergism in the antituberculosis activity between TCNPs and graphene nanosheets. Cytotoxicity of the TCNPs@GRP was examined against normal lung cell lines (WI38) and was found to have cell viability of 100% with the concentration range of 0.98-7.81 μg/mL.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Emad S Goda
- Organic Nanomaterials Lab, Department of Chemistry, Hannam University, Daejeon 34054, Republic of Korea; Gas Analysis and Fire Safety Laboratory, Chemistry Division, National Institute for Standards, 136, Giza 12211, Egypt.
| | - Heba M Abdallah
- Polymers and Pigments Department, Chemical Industries Research institute, National Research Center, Dokki, Giza 12622, Egypt
| | - Marwa M Abdel-Aziz
- Regional Center for Mycology and Biotechnology, Al-Azhar University, Cairo 11651, Egypt
| | - Heba Gamal
- Home Economy Department, Faculty of Specific Education, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
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7
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Salustri A, De Maio F, Palmieri V, Santarelli G, Palucci I, Mercedes Bianco D, Marchionni F, Bellesi S, Ciasca G, Perini G, Sanguinetti M, Sali M, Papi M, De Spirito M, Delogu G. Evaluation of the Toxic Activity of the Graphene Oxide in the Ex Vivo Model of Human PBMC Infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Microorganisms 2023; 11:microorganisms11030554. [PMID: 36985128 PMCID: PMC10059016 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11030554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2023] [Revised: 02/13/2023] [Accepted: 02/19/2023] [Indexed: 02/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Graphene Oxide has been proposed as a potential adjuvant to develop improved anti-TB treatment, thanks to its activity in entrapping mycobacteria in the extracellular compartment limiting their entry in macrophages. Indeed, when administered together with linezolid, Graphene Oxide significantly enhanced bacterial killing due to the increased production of Reactive Oxygen Species. In this work, we evaluated Graphene Oxide toxicity and its anti-mycobacterial activity on human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Our data show that Graphene Oxide, different to what is observed in macrophages, does not support the clearance of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in human immune primary cells, probably due to the toxic effects of the nano-material on monocytes and CD4+ lymphocytes, which we measured by cytometry. These findings highlight the need to test GO and other carbon-based nanomaterials in relevant in vitro models to assess the cytotoxic activity while measuring antimicrobial potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandro Salustri
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biotecnologiche di Base, Cliniche Intensivologiche e Perioperatorie—Sezione di Microbiologia, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Flavio De Maio
- Dipartimento di Scienze di Laboratorio e Infettivologiche, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario “A. Gemelli”, IRCCS, 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Valentina Palmieri
- Istituto dei Sistemi Complessi, CNR, 00168 Rome, Italy
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario “A. Gemelli”, IRCSS, 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Giulia Santarelli
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biotecnologiche di Base, Cliniche Intensivologiche e Perioperatorie—Sezione di Microbiologia, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Ivana Palucci
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biotecnologiche di Base, Cliniche Intensivologiche e Perioperatorie—Sezione di Microbiologia, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome, Italy
- Dipartimento di Scienze di Laboratorio e Infettivologiche, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario “A. Gemelli”, IRCCS, 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Delia Mercedes Bianco
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biotecnologiche di Base, Cliniche Intensivologiche e Perioperatorie—Sezione di Microbiologia, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Federica Marchionni
- Dipartimento di Diagnostica per Immagini, Radioterapia Oncologica ed Ematologia, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario “A. Gemelli”, IRCCS, 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Silvia Bellesi
- Dipartimento di Diagnostica per Immagini, Radioterapia Oncologica ed Ematologia, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario “A. Gemelli”, IRCCS, 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Gabriele Ciasca
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario “A. Gemelli”, IRCSS, 00168 Rome, Italy
- Dipartimento di Neuroscienze, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Giordano Perini
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario “A. Gemelli”, IRCSS, 00168 Rome, Italy
- Dipartimento di Neuroscienze, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Maurizio Sanguinetti
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biotecnologiche di Base, Cliniche Intensivologiche e Perioperatorie—Sezione di Microbiologia, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome, Italy
- Dipartimento di Scienze di Laboratorio e Infettivologiche, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario “A. Gemelli”, IRCCS, 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Michela Sali
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biotecnologiche di Base, Cliniche Intensivologiche e Perioperatorie—Sezione di Microbiologia, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome, Italy
- Dipartimento di Scienze di Laboratorio e Infettivologiche, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario “A. Gemelli”, IRCCS, 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Massimiliano Papi
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario “A. Gemelli”, IRCSS, 00168 Rome, Italy
- Dipartimento di Neuroscienze, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome, Italy
- Correspondence: (M.P.); (M.D.S.)
| | - Marco De Spirito
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario “A. Gemelli”, IRCSS, 00168 Rome, Italy
- Dipartimento di Neuroscienze, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome, Italy
- Correspondence: (M.P.); (M.D.S.)
| | - Giovanni Delogu
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biotecnologiche di Base, Cliniche Intensivologiche e Perioperatorie—Sezione di Microbiologia, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome, Italy
- Mater Olbia Hospital, 07026 Olbia, Italy
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8
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Foffa I, Losi P, Quaranta P, Cara A, Al Kayal T, D'Acunto M, Presciuttini G, Pistello M, Soldani G. A Copper nanoparticles-based polymeric spray coating: Nanoshield against Sars-Cov-2. J Appl Biomater Funct Mater 2022; 20:22808000221076326. [PMID: 35611488 DOI: 10.1177/22808000221076326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Face masks are an effective protection tool to prevent bacterial and viral transmission. However, commercial face masks contain filters made of materials that are not capable of inactivating either SARS-CoV-2. In this regard, we report the development of an antiviral coating of polyurethane and Copper nanoparticles on a face mask filter fabricated with a spray technology that is capable of inactivating more than 99% of SARS-CoV-2 particles in 30 min of contact.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilenia Foffa
- Institute of Clinical Physiology, National Research Council, Massa, Italy
| | - Paola Losi
- Institute of Clinical Physiology, National Research Council, Massa, Italy
| | - Paola Quaranta
- Retrovirus Center and Virology Section, Department of Translational Research and New Technologies in Medicine and Surgery, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Alice Cara
- Retrovirus Center and Virology Section, Department of Translational Research and New Technologies in Medicine and Surgery, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Tamer Al Kayal
- Institute of Clinical Physiology, National Research Council, Massa, Italy
| | - Mario D'Acunto
- Institute of Biophysics, National Research Council, Pisa, Italy
| | | | - Mauro Pistello
- Retrovirus Center and Virology Section, Department of Translational Research and New Technologies in Medicine and Surgery, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy.,Pisa University Hospital, Pisa, Italy
| | - Giorgio Soldani
- Institute of Clinical Physiology, National Research Council, Massa, Italy
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Palmieri V, Niccolini B, Perini G, Augello A, De Maio F, Gervasoni J, Primiano A, Delogu G, De Spirito M, Papi M. In situ N-acetylcysteine release from polyvinyl alcohol film for moisture-activated food packaging. Food Packag Shelf Life 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fpsl.2021.100694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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10
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De Maio F, Palmieri V, Babini G, Augello A, Palucci I, Perini G, Salustri A, Spilman P, De Spirito M, Sanguinetti M, Delogu G, Rizzi LG, Cesareo G, Soon-Shiong P, Sali M, Papi M. Graphene nanoplatelet and graphene oxide functionalization of face mask materials inhibits infectivity of trapped SARS-CoV-2. iScience 2021; 24:102788. [PMID: 34222841 PMCID: PMC8233064 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2021.102788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2021] [Revised: 06/03/2021] [Accepted: 06/22/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent advancements in bidimensional nanoparticles production such as graphene (G) and graphene oxide (GO) have the potential to meet the need for highly functional personal protective equipment (PPE) against SARS-CoV-2 infection. The ability of G and GO to interact with microorganisms provides an opportunity to develop engineered textiles for use in PPE and limit the spread of COVID-19. PPE in current use in high-risk settings for COVID transmission provides only a physical barrier that decreases infection likelihood and does not inactivate the virus. Here, we show that virus pre-incubation with soluble GO inhibits SARS-CoV-2 infection of VERO cells. Furthermore, when G/GO-functionalized polyurethane or cotton was in contact SARS-CoV-2, the infectivity of the fabric was nearly completely inhibited. The findings presented here constitute an important innovative nanomaterial-based strategy to significantly increase PPE efficacy in protection against the SARS-CoV-2 virus that may implement water filtration, air purification, and diagnostics methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Flavio De Maio
- Dipartimento di Scienze di Laboratorio e Infettivologiche, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario “A. Gemelli” IRCSS, Largo A. Gemelli, 8 00168 Rome, Italy
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biotecnologiche di Base, Cliniche Intensivologiche e Perioperatorie – Sezione di Microbiologia, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Largo Francesco Vito 1, Rome 00168, Italy
| | - Valentina Palmieri
- Istituto dei Sistemi Complessi, CNR, Via dei Taurini 19, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Gabriele Babini
- Dipartimento Scienze della Salute della Donna, del Bambino e di Sanità Pubblica, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario "A. Gemelli", Largo A. Gemelli, 8 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Alberto Augello
- Dipartimento di Neuroscienze, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Largo Francesco Vito 1, Rome 00168, Italy
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario “A. Gemelli” IRCSS, Largo A. Gemelli, 8 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Ivana Palucci
- Dipartimento di Scienze di Laboratorio e Infettivologiche, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario “A. Gemelli” IRCSS, Largo A. Gemelli, 8 00168 Rome, Italy
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biotecnologiche di Base, Cliniche Intensivologiche e Perioperatorie – Sezione di Microbiologia, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Largo Francesco Vito 1, Rome 00168, Italy
| | - Giordano Perini
- Dipartimento di Neuroscienze, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Largo Francesco Vito 1, Rome 00168, Italy
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario “A. Gemelli” IRCSS, Largo A. Gemelli, 8 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Alessandro Salustri
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biotecnologiche di Base, Cliniche Intensivologiche e Perioperatorie – Sezione di Microbiologia, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Largo Francesco Vito 1, Rome 00168, Italy
| | - Patricia Spilman
- ImmunityBio, LLC, Culver City, 440 Duley Road, El Segundo, California, CA 90245, USA
| | - Marco De Spirito
- Dipartimento di Neuroscienze, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Largo Francesco Vito 1, Rome 00168, Italy
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario “A. Gemelli” IRCSS, Largo A. Gemelli, 8 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Maurizio Sanguinetti
- Dipartimento di Scienze di Laboratorio e Infettivologiche, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario “A. Gemelli” IRCSS, Largo A. Gemelli, 8 00168 Rome, Italy
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biotecnologiche di Base, Cliniche Intensivologiche e Perioperatorie – Sezione di Microbiologia, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Largo Francesco Vito 1, Rome 00168, Italy
| | - Giovanni Delogu
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biotecnologiche di Base, Cliniche Intensivologiche e Perioperatorie – Sezione di Microbiologia, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Largo Francesco Vito 1, Rome 00168, Italy
- Mater Olbia Hospital, Strada Statale 125 Orientale Sarda, 07026 Olbia SS, Italy
| | - Laura Giorgia Rizzi
- Directa Plus S.p.A. c/o ComoNExT - Science and Technology Park, 22074 Lomazzo, Como, Italy
| | - Giulio Cesareo
- Directa Plus S.p.A. c/o ComoNExT - Science and Technology Park, 22074 Lomazzo, Como, Italy
| | - Patrick Soon-Shiong
- Nantworks LLC, Culver City, 9920 Jefferson Boulevard, California, CA 90230, USA
| | - Michela Sali
- Dipartimento di Scienze di Laboratorio e Infettivologiche, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario “A. Gemelli” IRCSS, Largo A. Gemelli, 8 00168 Rome, Italy
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biotecnologiche di Base, Cliniche Intensivologiche e Perioperatorie – Sezione di Microbiologia, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Largo Francesco Vito 1, Rome 00168, Italy
| | - Massimiliano Papi
- Dipartimento di Neuroscienze, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Largo Francesco Vito 1, Rome 00168, Italy
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario “A. Gemelli” IRCSS, Largo A. Gemelli, 8 00168 Rome, Italy
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11
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De Maio F, Palmieri V, Babini G, Augello A, Palucci I, Perini G, Salustri A, Spilman P, De Spirito M, Sanguinetti M, Delogu G, Rizzi LG, Cesareo G, Soon-Shiong P, Sali M, Papi M. Graphene nanoplatelet and graphene oxide functionalization of face mask materials inhibits infectivity of trapped SARS-CoV-2. iScience 2021; 24:102788. [PMID: 34222841 DOI: 10.1101/2020.09.16.20194316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2021] [Revised: 06/03/2021] [Accepted: 06/22/2021] [Indexed: 05/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent advancements in bidimensional nanoparticles production such as graphene (G) and graphene oxide (GO) have the potential to meet the need for highly functional personal protective equipment (PPE) against SARS-CoV-2 infection. The ability of G and GO to interact with microorganisms provides an opportunity to develop engineered textiles for use in PPE and limit the spread of COVID-19. PPE in current use in high-risk settings for COVID transmission provides only a physical barrier that decreases infection likelihood and does not inactivate the virus. Here, we show that virus pre-incubation with soluble GO inhibits SARS-CoV-2 infection of VERO cells. Furthermore, when G/GO-functionalized polyurethane or cotton was in contact SARS-CoV-2, the infectivity of the fabric was nearly completely inhibited. The findings presented here constitute an important innovative nanomaterial-based strategy to significantly increase PPE efficacy in protection against the SARS-CoV-2 virus that may implement water filtration, air purification, and diagnostics methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Flavio De Maio
- Dipartimento di Scienze di Laboratorio e Infettivologiche, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario "A. Gemelli" IRCSS, Largo A. Gemelli, 8 00168 Rome, Italy
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biotecnologiche di Base, Cliniche Intensivologiche e Perioperatorie - Sezione di Microbiologia, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Largo Francesco Vito 1, Rome 00168, Italy
| | - Valentina Palmieri
- Istituto dei Sistemi Complessi, CNR, Via dei Taurini 19, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Gabriele Babini
- Dipartimento Scienze della Salute della Donna, del Bambino e di Sanità Pubblica, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario "A. Gemelli", Largo A. Gemelli, 8 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Alberto Augello
- Dipartimento di Neuroscienze, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Largo Francesco Vito 1, Rome 00168, Italy
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario "A. Gemelli" IRCSS, Largo A. Gemelli, 8 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Ivana Palucci
- Dipartimento di Scienze di Laboratorio e Infettivologiche, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario "A. Gemelli" IRCSS, Largo A. Gemelli, 8 00168 Rome, Italy
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biotecnologiche di Base, Cliniche Intensivologiche e Perioperatorie - Sezione di Microbiologia, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Largo Francesco Vito 1, Rome 00168, Italy
| | - Giordano Perini
- Dipartimento di Neuroscienze, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Largo Francesco Vito 1, Rome 00168, Italy
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario "A. Gemelli" IRCSS, Largo A. Gemelli, 8 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Alessandro Salustri
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biotecnologiche di Base, Cliniche Intensivologiche e Perioperatorie - Sezione di Microbiologia, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Largo Francesco Vito 1, Rome 00168, Italy
| | - Patricia Spilman
- ImmunityBio, LLC, Culver City, 440 Duley Road, El Segundo, California, CA 90245, USA
| | - Marco De Spirito
- Dipartimento di Neuroscienze, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Largo Francesco Vito 1, Rome 00168, Italy
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario "A. Gemelli" IRCSS, Largo A. Gemelli, 8 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Maurizio Sanguinetti
- Dipartimento di Scienze di Laboratorio e Infettivologiche, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario "A. Gemelli" IRCSS, Largo A. Gemelli, 8 00168 Rome, Italy
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biotecnologiche di Base, Cliniche Intensivologiche e Perioperatorie - Sezione di Microbiologia, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Largo Francesco Vito 1, Rome 00168, Italy
| | - Giovanni Delogu
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biotecnologiche di Base, Cliniche Intensivologiche e Perioperatorie - Sezione di Microbiologia, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Largo Francesco Vito 1, Rome 00168, Italy
- Mater Olbia Hospital, Strada Statale 125 Orientale Sarda, 07026 Olbia SS, Italy
| | - Laura Giorgia Rizzi
- Directa Plus S.p.A. c/o ComoNExT - Science and Technology Park, 22074 Lomazzo, Como, Italy
| | - Giulio Cesareo
- Directa Plus S.p.A. c/o ComoNExT - Science and Technology Park, 22074 Lomazzo, Como, Italy
| | - Patrick Soon-Shiong
- Nantworks LLC, Culver City, 9920 Jefferson Boulevard, California, CA 90230, USA
| | - Michela Sali
- Dipartimento di Scienze di Laboratorio e Infettivologiche, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario "A. Gemelli" IRCSS, Largo A. Gemelli, 8 00168 Rome, Italy
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biotecnologiche di Base, Cliniche Intensivologiche e Perioperatorie - Sezione di Microbiologia, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Largo Francesco Vito 1, Rome 00168, Italy
| | - Massimiliano Papi
- Dipartimento di Neuroscienze, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Largo Francesco Vito 1, Rome 00168, Italy
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario "A. Gemelli" IRCSS, Largo A. Gemelli, 8 00168 Rome, Italy
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12
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Mamun MM, Sorinolu AJ, Munir M, Vejerano EP. Nanoantibiotics: Functions and Properties at the Nanoscale to Combat Antibiotic Resistance. Front Chem 2021; 9:687660. [PMID: 34055750 PMCID: PMC8155581 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2021.687660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2021] [Accepted: 04/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
One primary mechanism for bacteria developing resistance is frequent exposure to antibiotics. Nanoantibiotics (nAbts) is one of the strategies being explored to counteract the surge of antibiotic resistant bacteria. nAbts are antibiotic molecules encapsulated with engineered nanoparticles (NPs) or artificially synthesized pure antibiotics with a size range of ≤100 nm in at least one dimension. NPs may restore drug efficacy because of their nanoscale functionalities. As carriers and delivery agents, nAbts can reach target sites inside a bacterium by crossing the cell membrane, interfering with cellular components, and damaging metabolic machinery. Nanoscale systems deliver antibiotics at enormous particle number concentrations. The unique size-, shape-, and composition-related properties of nAbts pose multiple simultaneous assaults on bacteria. Resistance of bacteria toward diverse nanoscale conjugates is considerably slower because NPs generate non-biological adverse effects. NPs physically break down bacteria and interfere with critical molecules used in bacterial processes. Genetic mutations from abiotic assault exerted by nAbts are less probable. This paper discusses how to exploit the fundamental physical and chemical properties of NPs to restore the efficacy of conventional antibiotics. We first described the concept of nAbts and explained their importance. We then summarized the critical physicochemical properties of nAbts that can be utilized in manufacturing and designing various nAbts types. nAbts epitomize a potential Trojan horse strategy to circumvent antibiotic resistance mechanisms. The availability of diverse types and multiple targets of nAbts is increasing due to advances in nanotechnology. Studying nanoscale functions and properties may provide an understanding in preventing future outbreaks caused by antibiotic resistance and in developing successful nAbts.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. Mustafa Mamun
- Center for Environmental Nanoscience and Risk, Department of Environmental Health Sciences, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, United States
| | - Adeola Julian Sorinolu
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, The William States Lee College of Engineering, University of North Carolina, Charlotte, NC, United States
| | - Mariya Munir
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, The William States Lee College of Engineering, University of North Carolina, Charlotte, NC, United States
| | - Eric P. Vejerano
- Center for Environmental Nanoscience and Risk, Department of Environmental Health Sciences, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, United States
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13
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Novel Structures and Applications of Graphene-Based Semiconductor Photocatalysts: Faceted Particles, Photonic Crystals, Antimicrobial and Magnetic Properties. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/app11051982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Graphene, graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide and their composites with various compounds/materials have high potential for substantial impact as cheap photocatalysts, which is essential to meet the demands of global activity, offering the advantage of utilizing “green” solar energy. Accordingly, graphene-based materials might help to reduce reliance on fossil fuel supplies and facile remediation routes to achieve clean environment and pure water. This review presents recent developments of graphene-based semiconductor photocatalysts, including novel composites with faceted particles, photonic crystals, and nanotubes/nanowires, where the enhancement of activity mechanism is associated with a synergistic effect resulting from the presence of graphene structure. Moreover, antimicrobial potential (highly needed these days), and facile recovery/reuse of photocatalysts by magnetic field have been addresses as very important issue for future commercialization. It is believed that graphene materials should be available soon in the market, especially because of constantly decreasing prices of graphene, vis response, excellent charge transfer ability, and thus high and broad photocatalytic activity against both organic pollutants and microorganisms.
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14
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Alatorre-Barajas JA, Alcántar-Zavala E, Gil-Rivas MG, Estrada-Zavala E, Ochoa-Terán A, Gochi-Ponce Y, Montes-Ávila J, Cabrera A, Trujillo-Navarrete B, Rivera-Lugo YY, Alonso-Núñez G, Reynoso-Soto EA, Medina-Franco JL. Synthesis of covalent bonding MWCNT-oligoethylene linezolid conjugates and their antibacterial activity against bacterial strains. RSC Adv 2021; 11:28912-28924. [PMID: 35478546 PMCID: PMC9038137 DOI: 10.1039/d1ra04691h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2021] [Accepted: 08/24/2021] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Nowadays, infectious diseases caused by drug-resistant bacteria have become especially important. Linezolid is an antibacterial drug active against clinically important Gram positive strains; however, resistance showed by these bacteria has been reported. Nanotechnology has improved a broad area of science, such as medicine, developing new drug delivery and transport systems. In this work, several covalently bounded conjugated nanomaterials were synthesized from multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs), a different length oligoethylene chain (Sn), and two linezolid precursors (4 and 7), and they were evaluated in antibacterial assays. Interestingly, due to the intrinsic antibacterial activity of the amino-oligoethylene linezolid analogues, these conjugated nanomaterials showed significant antibacterial activity against various tested bacterial strains in a radial diffusion assay and microdilution method, including Gram negative strains as Escherichia coli (11 mm, 6.25 μg mL−1) and Salmonella typhi (14 mm, ≤0.78 μg mL−1), which are not inhibited by linezolid. The results show a significant effect of the oligoethylene chain length over the antibacterial activity. Molecular docking of amino-oligoethylene linezolid analogs shows a more favorable interaction of the S2-7 analog in the PTC of E. coli. New MWCNTs amino-oligoethylene linezolid conjugates having outstanding activity against Gram negative strains.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- José A. Alatorre-Barajas
- Centro de Graduados e Investigación en Química, Tecnológico Nacional de México/ IT de Tijuana, Tijuana, B. C., Mexico
| | - Eleazar Alcántar-Zavala
- Centro de Graduados e Investigación en Química, Tecnológico Nacional de México/ IT de Tijuana, Tijuana, B. C., Mexico
| | - M. Graciela Gil-Rivas
- Centro de Graduados e Investigación en Química, Tecnológico Nacional de México/ IT de Tijuana, Tijuana, B. C., Mexico
| | - Edgar Estrada-Zavala
- Facultad de Ciencias Químico Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Sinaloa, Culiacán, Sin, Mexico
| | - Adrián Ochoa-Terán
- Centro de Graduados e Investigación en Química, Tecnológico Nacional de México/ IT de Tijuana, Tijuana, B. C., Mexico
| | - Y. Gochi-Ponce
- Centro de Graduados e Investigación en Química, Tecnológico Nacional de México/ IT de Tijuana, Tijuana, B. C., Mexico
| | - Julio Montes-Ávila
- Facultad de Ciencias Químico Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Sinaloa, Culiacán, Sin, Mexico
| | - Alberto Cabrera
- Centro de Graduados e Investigación en Química, Tecnológico Nacional de México/ IT de Tijuana, Tijuana, B. C., Mexico
| | - Balter Trujillo-Navarrete
- Centro de Graduados e Investigación en Química, Tecnológico Nacional de México/ IT de Tijuana, Tijuana, B. C., Mexico
| | - Yazmin Yorely Rivera-Lugo
- Centro de Graduados e Investigación en Química, Tecnológico Nacional de México/ IT de Tijuana, Tijuana, B. C., Mexico
| | - Gabriel Alonso-Núñez
- Centro de Nanociencias y Nanotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ensenada, B. C, Mexico
| | - Edgar A. Reynoso-Soto
- Centro de Graduados e Investigación en Química, Tecnológico Nacional de México/ IT de Tijuana, Tijuana, B. C., Mexico
| | - J. L. Medina-Franco
- Departamento de Farmacia, Facultad de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, Mexico
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