The Comet Assay as a Tool to Detect the Genotoxic Potential of Nanomaterials

Polylactic acid nanoplastics (PLA-NPLs) induce adverse effects on an in vitro model of the human lung epithelium: The Calu-3 air-liquid interface (ALI) barrier

The expected increments in the production/use of bioplastics, as an alternative to petroleum-based plastics, require a deep understanding of their potential environmental and health hazards, mainly as nanoplastics (NPLs). Since one important exposure route to NPLs is through inhalation, this study aims to determine the fate and effects of true-to-life polylactic acid nanoplastics (PLA-NPLs), using the in vitro Calu-3 model of bronchial epithelium, under air-liquid interphase exposure conditions. To determine the harmful effects of PLA-NPLs in a more realistic scenario, both acute (24 h) and long-term (1 and 2 weeks) exposures were used. Flow cytometry results indicated that PLA-NPLs internalized easily in the barrier (∼10 % at 24 h and ∼40 % after 2 weeks), which affected the expression of tight-junctions formation (∼50 % less vs control) and the mucus secretion (∼50 % more vs control), both measured by immunostaining. Interestingly, significant genotoxic effects (DNA breaks) were detected by using the comet assay, with long-term effects being more marked than acute ones (7.01 vs 4.54 % of DNA damage). When an array of cellular proteins including cytokines, chemokines, and growth factors were used, a significant over-expression was mainly found in long-term exposures (∼20 proteins vs 5 proteins after acute exposure). Overall, these results described the potential hazards posed by PLA-NPLs, under relevant long-term exposure scenarios, highlighting the advantages of the model used to study bronchial epithelium tissue damage, and signaling endpoints related to inflammation.

Hazard assessment of nanoplastics is driven by their surface-functionalization. Effects in human-derived primary endothelial cells

During plastic waste degradation into micro/nanoplastics (MNPLs) their physicochemical characteristics including surface properties (charge, functionalization, biocorona, etc.) can change, potentially affecting their biological effects. This paper focuses on the surface functionalization of MNPLs to determine if it has a direct impact on the toxicokinetic and toxicodynamic interactions in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs), at different exposure times. Pristine polystyrene nanoplastics (PS-NPLs), as well as their carboxylated (PS-C-NPLs) and aminated (PS-A-NPLs) forms, all around 50 nm, were used in a wide battery of toxicological assays. These assays encompassed evaluations on cell viability, cell internalization, induction of intracellular reactive oxygen species (iROS), and genotoxicity. The experiments were conducted at a concentration of 100 μg/mL, chosen to ensure a high internalization rate across all treatments while maintaining a sub-toxic concentration. Our results show that all PS-NPLs are internalized by HUVECs, but the internalization dynamic depends on the particle's functionalization. PS-NPLs and PS-C-NPLs internalization modify the morphology of the cell increasing its inner complexity/granularity. Regarding cell toxicity, only PS-A-NPLs reduced cell viability. Intracellular ROS was induced by the three different PS-NPLs but at different time points. Genotoxic damage was induced by the three PS-NPLs at short exposures (2 h), but not for PS-C-NPLs at 24 h. Overall, this study suggests that the toxicological effects of PSNPLs on HUVEC cells are surface-dependent, highlighting the relevance of using human-derived primary cells as a target.

Mechanisms related to carbon nanotubes genotoxicity in human cell lines of respiratory origin

Potential genotoxicity and carcinogenicity of carbon nanotubes (CNT), as well as the underlying mechanisms, remains a pressing topic. The study aimed to evaluate and compare the genotoxic effect and mechanisms of DNA damage under exposure to different types of CNT. Immortalized human cell lines of respiratory origin BEAS-2B, A549, MRC5-SV40 were exposed to three types of CNT: MWCNT Taunit-M, pristine and purified SWCNT TUBALL™ at concentrations in the range of 0.0006-200 μg/ml. Data on the CNT content in the workplace air were used to calculate the lower concentration limit. The genotoxic potential of CNTs was investigated at non-cytotoxic concentrations using a DNA comet assay. We explored reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation, direct genetic material damage, and expression of a profibrotic factor TGFB1 as mechanisms related to genotoxicity upon CNT exposure. An increase in the number of unstable DNA regions was observed at a subtoxic concentration of CNT (20 μg/ml), with no genotoxic effects at concentrations corresponding to industrial exposures being found. While the three test articles of CNTs exhibited comparable genotoxic potential, their mechanisms appeared to differ. MWCNTs were found to penetrate the nucleus of respiratory cells, potentially interacting directly with genetic material, as well as to enhance ROS production and TGFB1 gene expression. For A549 and MRC5-SV40, genotoxicity depended mainly on MWCNT concentration, while for BEAS-2B - on ROS production. Mechanisms of SWCNT genotoxicity were not so obvious. Oxidative stress and increased expression of profibrotic factors could not fully explain DNA damage under SWCNT exposure, and other mechanisms might be involved.

Pleural inflammatory response, mesothelin content and DNA damage in mice at one-year after intra-pleural carbon nanotube administration

Many in vitro and in vivo studies have shown that exposure to carbon nanotubes (CNTs) is associated with inflammation, oxidative stress and genotoxicity, although there is a paucity of studies on these effects in the pleural cavity. In the present study, we investigated adverse outcomes of pleural exposure to multi-walled CNTs (MWCNT-7, NM-401 and NM-403) and single-walled CNTs (NM-411). Female C57BL/6 mice were exposed to 0.2 or 5 µg of CNTs by intra-pleural injection and sacrificed one-year post-exposure. Exposure to long and straight types of MWCNTs (i.e. MWCNT-7 and NM-401) was associated with decreased number of macrophages and increased number of neutrophils and eosinophils in pleural lavage fluid. Increased protein content in the pleural lavage fluid was also observed in mice exposed to MWCNT-7 and NM-401. The concentration of mesothelin was increased in mice exposed to MWCNT-7 and NM-411. Levels of DNA strand breaks and DNA oxidation damage, measured by the comet assay, were unaltered in cells from pleural scrape. Extra-pleural effects were seen in CNT exposed mice, including enlarged and pigmented mediastinal lymph nodes (all four types of CNTs), pericardial plaques (MWCNT-7 and NM-401), macroscopic abnormalities on the liver (MWCNT-7) and ovaries/uterus (NM-411). In conclusion, the results demonstrate that intra-pleural exposure to long and straight MWCNTs is associated with adverse outcomes. Certain observations such as increased content of mesothelin in pleural lavage fluid and ovarian/uterine abnormalities in mice exposed to NM-411 suggests that exposure to SWCNTs may also be associated with some adverse outcomes.

Improving the Stability and Effectiveness of Immunotropic Squalene Nanoemulsion by Adding Turpentine Oil

Turpentine oil, owing to the presence of 7-50 terpenes, has analgesic, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, antibacterial, anticoagulant, antioxidant, and antitumor properties, which are important for medical emulsion preparation. The addition of turpentine oil to squalene emulsions can increase their effectiveness, thereby reducing the concentration of expensive and possibly deficient squalene, and increasing its stability and shelf life. In this study, squalene emulsions were obtained by adding various concentrations of turpentine oil via high-pressure homogenization, and the safety and effectiveness of the obtained emulsions were studied in vitro and in vivo. All emulsions showed high safety profiles, regardless of the concentration of turpentine oil used. However, these emulsions exhibited dose-dependent effects in terms of both efficiency and storage stability, and the squalene emulsion with 1.0% turpentine oil had the most pronounced adjuvant and cytokine-stimulating activity as well as the most pronounced stability indicators when stored at room temperature. Thus, it can be concluded that the squalene emulsion with 1% turpentine oil is a stable, monomodal, and reliably safe ultradispersed emulsion and may have pleiotropic effects with pronounced immunopotentiating properties.

Cellulose nanocrystal as an enhancing core for antitumor polymeric micelles to overcome biological barriers

Polymeric micelles are extensively studied nanocarriers to improve the solubility, blood circulation, biodistribution, and adverse effects of chemotherapeutic drugs. However, the antitumor efficacy of polymeric micelles is often restricted due to multiple biological barriers, including blood fluid shear stress (FSS) and limited tumor penetration in vivo. Herein, cellulose nanocrystal (CNC) as a green material with rigidity and rod-shaped structure is developed to be an enhancing core for polymeric micelles to overcome these biological barriers. Doxorubicin (DOX) loaded methoxy poly (ethylene glycol)-block-poly (D, L-lactic acid) (mPEG-PLA, PP) ligated CNC nanoparticles (PPC/DOX NPs) are fabricated via one-pot synthesis. In comparison to the self-assembled DOX loaded mPEG-PLA micelles (PP/DOX NPs), PPC/DOX NPs exhibit remarkable improvements in FSS resistance, cellular internalization, blood circulation, tumor penetration, and antitumor efficacy owing to the unique rigidity and rod-shaped structure of CNC core. Moreover, PPC/DOX NPs present various advantages beyond DOX·HCl and CNC/DOX NPs. The superiority of PPC/DOX NPs in antitumor efficacy reveals the effectiveness of adopting CNC as the enhancing core for polymeric micelles, suggesting that CNC is a promising biomaterial in advancing nanomedicine.

The State of the Art and Challenges of In Vitro Methods for Human Hazard Assessment of Nanomaterials in the Context of Safe-by-Design

The Safe-by-Design (SbD) concept aims to facilitate the development of safer materials/products, safer production, and safer use and end-of-life by performing timely SbD interventions to reduce hazard, exposure, or both. Early hazard screening is a crucial first step in this process. In this review, for the first time, commonly used in vitro assays are evaluated for their suitability for SbD hazard testing of nanomaterials (NMs). The goal of SbD hazard testing is identifying hazard warnings in the early stages of innovation. For this purpose, assays should be simple, cost-effective, predictive, robust, and compatible. For several toxicological endpoints, there are indications that commonly used in vitro assays are able to predict hazard warnings. In addition to the evaluation of assays, this review provides insights into the effects of the choice of cell type, exposure and dispersion protocol, and the (in)accurate determination of dose delivered to cells on predictivity. Furthermore, compatibility of assays with challenging advanced materials and NMs released from nano-enabled products (NEPs) during the lifecycle is assessed, as these aspects are crucial for SbD hazard testing. To conclude, hazard screening of NMs is complex and joint efforts between innovators, scientists, and regulators are needed to further improve SbD hazard testing.

Role of Nanomaterials in the Fabrication of bioNEMS/MEMS for Biomedical Applications and towards Pioneering Food Waste Utilisation

bioNEMS/MEMS has emerged as an innovative technology for the miniaturisation of biomedical devices with high precision and rapid processing since its first R&D breakthrough in the 1980s. To date, several organic including food waste derived nanomaterials and inorganic nanomaterials (e.g., carbon nanotubes, graphene, silica, gold, and magnetic nanoparticles) have steered the development of high-throughput and sensitive bioNEMS/MEMS-based biosensors, actuator systems, drug delivery systems and implantable/wearable sensors with desirable biomedical properties. Turning food waste into valuable nanomaterials is potential groundbreaking research in this growing field of bioMEMS/NEMS. This review aspires to communicate recent progress in organic and inorganic nanomaterials based bioNEMS/MEMS for biomedical applications, comprehensively discussing nanomaterials criteria and their prospects as ideal tools for biomedical devices. We discuss clinical applications for diagnostic, monitoring, and therapeutic applications as well as the technological potential for cell manipulation (i.e., sorting, separation, and patterning technology). In addition, current in vitro and in vivo assessments of promising nanomaterials-based biomedical devices will be discussed in this review. Finally, this review also looked at the most recent state-of-the-art knowledge on Internet of Things (IoT) applications such as nanosensors, nanoantennas, nanoprocessors, and nanobattery.

The miniaturized enzyme-modified comet assay for genotoxicity testing of nanomaterials

The in vitro comet assay is a widely applied method for investigating genotoxicity of chemicals including engineered nanomaterials (NMs). A big challenge in hazard assessment of NMs is possible interference between the NMs and reagents or read-out of the test assay, leading to a risk of biased results. Here, we describe both the standard alkaline version of the in vitro comet assay with 12 mini-gels per slide for detection of DNA strand breaks and the enzyme-modified version that allows detection of oxidized DNA bases by applying lesion-specific endonucleases (e.g., formamidopyrimidine DNA glycosylase or endonuclease III). We highlight critical points that need to be taken into consideration when assessing the genotoxicity of NMs, as well as basic methodological considerations, such as the importance of carrying out physicochemical characterization of the NMs and investigating uptake and cytotoxicity. Also, experimental design-including treatment conditions, cell number, cell culture, format and volume of medium on the plate-is crucial and can have an impact on the results, especially when testing NMs. Toxicity of NMs depends upon physicochemical properties that change depending on the environment. To facilitate testing of numerous NMs with distinct modifications, the higher throughput miniaturized version of the comet assay is essential.

A new source of representative secondary PET nanoplastics. Obtention, characterization, and hazard evaluation

Micro and nanoplastics (MNPLs) are emergent environmental pollutants requiring urgent information on their potential risks to human health. One of the problems associated with the evaluation of their undesirable effects is the lack of representative samples, matching those resulting from the environmental degradation of plastic wastes. To such end, we propose an easy method to obtain polyethylene terephthalate nanoplastics from water plastic bottles (PET-NPLs) but, in principle, applicable to any other plastic goods sources. An extensive characterization indicates that the proposed process produces uniform samples of PET-NPLs of around 100 nm, as determined by using AF4 and multi-angle and dynamic light scattering methodologies. An important point to be highlighted is that to avoid the metal contamination resulting from methods using metal blades/burrs for milling, trituration, or sanding, we propose to use diamond burrs to produce metal-free samples. To visualize the toxicological profile of the produced PET-NPLs we have evaluated their ability to be internalized by cells, their cytotoxicity, their ability to induce oxidative stress, and induce DNA damage. In this preliminary approach, we have detected their cellular uptake, but without the induction of significant biological effects. Thus, no relevant increases in toxicity, reactive oxygen species (ROS) induction, or DNA damage -as detected with the comet assay- have been observed. The use of representative samples, as produced in this study, will generate relevant data in the discussion about the potential health risks associated with MNPLs exposures.

Analysis of the In Vitro Toxicity of Nanocelluloses in Human Lung Cells as Compared to Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotubes

Cellulose micro/nanomaterials (CMNM), comprising cellulose microfibrils (CMF), nanofibrils (CNF), and nanocrystals (CNC), are being recognized as promising bio-nanomaterials due to their natural and renewable source, attractive properties, and potential for applications with industrial and economical value. Thus, it is crucial to investigate their potential toxicity before starting their production at a larger scale. The present study aimed at evaluating the cell internalization and in vitro cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of CMNM as compared to two multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT), NM-401 and NM-402, in A549 cells. The exposure to all studied NM, with the exception of CNC, resulted in evident cellular uptake, as analyzed by transmission electron microscopy. However, none of the CMNM induced cytotoxic effects, in contrast to the cytotoxicity observed for the MWCNT. Furthermore, no genotoxicity was observed for CNF, CNC, and NM-402 (cytokinesis-block micronucleus assay), while CMF and NM-401 were able to significantly raise micronucleus frequency. Only NM-402 was able to induce ROS formation, although it did not induce micronuclei. Thus, it is unlikely that the observed CMF and NM-401 genotoxicity is mediated by oxidative DNA damage. More studies targeting other genotoxicity endpoints and cellular and molecular events are underway to allow for a more comprehensive safety assessment of these nanocelluloses.

Surface functionalization and size modulate the formation of reactive oxygen species and genotoxic effects of cellulose nanofibrils

BACKGROUND

Cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs) have emerged as a sustainable and environmentally friendly option for a broad range of applications. The fibrous nature and high biopersistence of CNFs call for a thorough toxicity assessment, but it is presently unclear which physico-chemical properties could play a role in determining the potential toxic response to CNF. Here, we assessed whether surface composition and size could modulate the genotoxicity of CNFs in human bronchial epithelial BEAS-2B cells. We examined three size fractions (fine, medium and coarse) of four CNFs with different surface chemistry: unmodified (U-CNF) and functionalized with 2,2,6,6-tetramethyl-piperidin-1-oxyl (TEMPO) (T-CNF), carboxymethyl (C-CNF) and epoxypropyltrimethylammonium chloride (EPTMAC) (E-CNF). In addition, the source fibre was also evaluated as a non-nanosized material.

RESULTS

The presence of the surface charged groups in the functionalized CNF samples resulted in higher amounts of individual nanofibrils and less aggregation compared with the U-CNF. T-CNF was the most homogenous, in agreement with its high surface group density. However, the colloidal stability of all the CNF samples dropped when dispersed in cell culture medium, especially in the case of T-CNF. CNF was internalized by a minority of BEAS-2B cells. No remarkable cytotoxic effects were induced by any of the cellulosic materials. All cellulosic materials, except the medium fraction of U-CNF, induced a dose-dependent intracellular formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). The fine fraction of E-CNF, which induced DNA damage (measured by the comet assay) and chromosome damage (measured by the micronucleus assay), and the coarse fraction of C-CNF, which produced chromosome damage, also showed the most effective induction of ROS in their respective size fractions.

CONCLUSIONS

Surface chemistry and size modulate the in vitro intracellular ROS formation and the induction of genotoxic effects by fibrillated celluloses. One cationic (fine E-CNF) and one anionic (coarse C-CNF) CNF showed primary genotoxic effects, possibly partly through ROS generation. However, the conclusions cannot be generalized to all types of CNFs, as the synthesis process and the dispersion method used for testing affect their physico-chemical properties and, hence, their toxic effects.

Genotoxicity of multi-walled carbon nanotube reference materials in mammalian cells and animals

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) were the first nanomaterials to be evaluated by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). The categorization as possibly carcinogenic agent to humans was only applicable to multi-walled carbon nanotubes called MWCNT-7. Other types of CNTs were not classifiable because of missing data and it was not possible to pinpoint unique CNT characteristics that cause cancer. Importantly, the European Commission's Joint Research Centre (JRC) has established a repository of industrially manufactured nanomaterials that encompasses at least four well-characterized MWCNTs called NM-400 to NM-403 (original JRC code). This review summarizes the genotoxic effects of these JRC materials and MWCNT-7. The review consists of 36 publications with results on cell culture experiments (22 publications), animal models (9 publications) or both (5 publications). As compared to the publications in the IARC monograph on CNTs, the current database represents a significant increase as there is only an overlap of 8 publications. However, the results come mainly from cell cultures and/or measurements of DNA strand breaks by the comet assay and the micronucleus assay (82 out of 97 outcomes). A meta-analysis of cell culture studies on DNA strand breaks showed a genotoxic response by MWCNT-7, less consistent effect by NM-400 and NM-402, and least consistent effect by NM-401 and NM-403. Results from other in vitro tests indicate strongest evidence of genotoxicity for MWCNT-7. There are too few observations from animal models and humans to make general conclusions about genotoxicity.

Assessment of the Carcinogenicity of Carbon Nanotubes in the Respiratory System

In 2014, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classified the first type of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) as possibly carcinogenic to humans, while in the case of other CNTs, it was not possible to ascertain their toxicity due to lack of evidence. Moreover, the physicochemical heterogeneity of this group of substances hamper any generalization on their toxicity. Here, we review the recent relevant toxicity studies produced after the IARC meeting in 2014 on an homogeneous group of CNTs, highlighting the molecular alterations that are relevant for the onset of mesothelioma. Methods: The literature was searched on PubMed and Web of Science for the period 2015-2020, using different combinations keywords. Only data on normal cells of the respiratory system after exposure to fully characterized CNTs for their physico-chemical characteristics were included. Recent studies indicate that CNTs induce a sustained inflammatory response, oxidative stress, fibrosis and histological alterations. The development of mesothelial hyperplasia, mesothelioma, and lungs tumors have been also described in vivo. The data support a strong inflammatory potential of CNTs, similar to that of asbestos, and provide evidence that CNTs exposure led to molecular alterations known to have a key role in mesothelioma onset. These evidences call for an urgent improvement of studies on exposed human populations and adequate systems for monitoring the health of workers exposed to this putative carcinogen.

From Basic Research to New Tools and Challenges for the Genotoxicity Testing of Nanomaterials

Genotoxicity is one of the key endpoints investigated as early as possible before marketing a product [...].

Genotoxicity of Nanomaterials: Advanced In Vitro Models and High Throughput Methods for Human Hazard Assessment-A Review

Changes in the genetic material can lead to serious human health defects, as mutations in somatic cells may cause cancer and can contribute to other chronic diseases. Genotoxic events can appear at both the DNA, chromosomal or (during mitosis) whole genome level. The study of mechanisms leading to genotoxicity is crucially important, as well as the detection of potentially genotoxic compounds. We consider the current state of the art and describe here the main endpoints applied in standard human in vitro models as well as new advanced 3D models that are closer to the in vivo situation. We performed a literature review of in vitro studies published from 2000–2020 (August) dedicated to the genotoxicity of nanomaterials (NMs) in new models. Methods suitable for detection of genotoxicity of NMs will be presented with a focus on advances in miniaturization, organ-on-a-chip and high throughput methods.

Use of a common European approach for nanomaterials' testing to support regulation: a case study on titanium and silicon dioxide representative nanomaterials

The European Union (EU) continuously takes ensuring the safe use of manufactured nanomaterials (MNMs) in consumer products into consideration. The application of a common approach for testing MNMs, including the use of optimized protocols and methods' selection, becomes increasingly important to obtain reliable and comparable results supporting the regulatory framework. In the present study, we tested four representative MNMs, two titanium dioxides (NM100 and NM101) and two silicon dioxides (NM200 and NM203), using the EU FP7-NANoREG approach, starting from suspension and dispersion preparations, through to their characterization and final evaluation of biological effects. MNM dispersions were prepared following a refined NANOGENOTOX protocol and characterized by dynamic light scattering (DLS) in water/bovine serum albumin and in media used for in vitro testing. Potential genotoxic effects were evaluated on human bronchial BEAS-2B cells using micronucleus and Comet assays, and pro-inflammatory effects by cytokines release. Murine macrophages RAW 264.7 were used to detect potential innate immune responses using two functional endpoints (pro-inflammatory cytokines and nitric oxide [NO] production). The interaction of MNMs with RAW 264.7 cells was studied by electron microscopy. No chromosomal damage and slight DNA damage and an oxidative effect, depending on MNMs, were observed in bronchial cells. In murine macrophages, the four MNMs directly induced tumor necrosis factor α or interleukin 6 secretion, although at very low levels; lipopolysaccharide-induced NO production was significantly decreased by the titania and one silica MNM. The application of this approach for the evaluation of MNM biological effects could be useful for both regulators and industries.

Micronuclei Detection by Flow Cytometry as a High-Throughput Approach for the Genotoxicity Testing of Nanomaterials

Thousands of nanomaterials (NMs)-containing products are currently under development or incorporated in the consumer market, despite our very limited understanding of their genotoxic potential. Taking into account that the toxicity and genotoxicity of NMs strongly depend on their physicochemical characteristics, many variables must be considered in the safety evaluation of each given NM. In this scenario, the challenge is to establish high-throughput methodologies able to generate rapid and robust genotoxicity data that can be used to critically assess and/or predict the biological effects associated with those NMs being under development or already present in the market. In this study, we have evaluated the advantages of using a flow cytometry-based approach testing micronucleus (MNs) induction (FCMN assay). In the frame of the EU NANoREG project, we have tested six different NMs—namely NM100 and NM101 (TiO₂NPs), NM110 (ZnONPs), NM212 (CeO₂NPs), NM300K (AgNPs) and NM401 (multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs)). The obtained results confirm the ability of AgNPs and MWCNTs to induce MN in the human bronchial epithelial BEAS-2B cell line, whereas the other tested NMs retrieved non-significant increases in the MN frequency. Based on the alignment of the results with the data reported in the literature and the performance of the FCMN assay, we strongly recommend this assay as a reference method to systematically evaluate the potential genotoxicity of NMs.