1
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Zacco E, Broglia L, Kurihara M, Monti M, Gustincich S, Pastore A, Plath K, Nagakawa S, Cerase A, Sanchez de Groot N, Tartaglia GG. RNA: The Unsuspected Conductor in the Orchestra of Macromolecular Crowding. Chem Rev 2024; 124:4734-4777. [PMID: 38579177 PMCID: PMC11046439 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.3c00575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2023] [Revised: 01/12/2024] [Accepted: 01/18/2024] [Indexed: 04/07/2024]
Abstract
This comprehensive Review delves into the chemical principles governing RNA-mediated crowding events, commonly referred to as granules or biological condensates. We explore the pivotal role played by RNA sequence, structure, and chemical modifications in these processes, uncovering their correlation with crowding phenomena under physiological conditions. Additionally, we investigate instances where crowding deviates from its intended function, leading to pathological consequences. By deepening our understanding of the delicate balance that governs molecular crowding driven by RNA and its implications for cellular homeostasis, we aim to shed light on this intriguing area of research. Our exploration extends to the methodologies employed to decipher the composition and structural intricacies of RNA granules, offering a comprehensive overview of the techniques used to characterize them, including relevant computational approaches. Through two detailed examples highlighting the significance of noncoding RNAs, NEAT1 and XIST, in the formation of phase-separated assemblies and their influence on the cellular landscape, we emphasize their crucial role in cellular organization and function. By elucidating the chemical underpinnings of RNA-mediated molecular crowding, investigating the role of modifications, structures, and composition of RNA granules, and exploring both physiological and aberrant phase separation phenomena, this Review provides a multifaceted understanding of the intriguing world of RNA-mediated biological condensates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elsa Zacco
- RNA
Systems Biology Lab, Center for Human Technologies, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Via Enrico Melen, 83, 16152 Genova, Italy
| | - Laura Broglia
- RNA
Systems Biology Lab, Center for Human Technologies, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Via Enrico Melen, 83, 16152 Genova, Italy
| | - Misuzu Kurihara
- RNA
Biology Laboratory, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 060-0812, Japan
| | - Michele Monti
- RNA
Systems Biology Lab, Center for Human Technologies, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Via Enrico Melen, 83, 16152 Genova, Italy
| | - Stefano Gustincich
- Central
RNA Lab, Center for Human Technologies, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Via Enrico Melen, 83, 16152 Genova, Italy
| | - Annalisa Pastore
- UK
Dementia Research Institute at the Maurice Wohl Institute of King’s
College London, London SE5 9RT, U.K.
| | - Kathrin Plath
- Department
of Biological Chemistry, David Geffen School
of Medicine at the University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Shinichi Nagakawa
- RNA
Biology Laboratory, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 060-0812, Japan
| | - Andrea Cerase
- Blizard
Institute,
Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, London E1 4NS, U.K.
- Unit
of Cell and developmental Biology, Department of Biology, Università di Pisa, 56123 Pisa, Italy
| | - Natalia Sanchez de Groot
- Unitat
de Bioquímica, Departament de Bioquímica i Biologia
Molecular, Universitat Autònoma de
Barcelona, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Gian Gaetano Tartaglia
- RNA
Systems Biology Lab, Center for Human Technologies, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Via Enrico Melen, 83, 16152 Genova, Italy
- Catalan
Institution for Research and Advanced Studies, ICREA, Passeig Lluís Companys 23, 08010 Barcelona, Spain
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2
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Liang M, Zhang L, Lai L, Li Z. Unraveling the role of Xist in X chromosome inactivation: insights from rabbit model and deletion analysis of exons and repeat A. Cell Mol Life Sci 2024; 81:156. [PMID: 38551746 PMCID: PMC10980640 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-024-05151-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2023] [Revised: 01/30/2024] [Accepted: 02/01/2024] [Indexed: 04/01/2024]
Abstract
X chromosome inactivation (XCI) is a process that equalizes the expression of X-linked genes between males and females. It relies on Xist, continuously expressed in somatic cells during XCI maintenance. However, how Xist impacts XCI maintenance and its functional motifs remain unclear. In this study, we conducted a comprehensive analysis of Xist, using rabbits as an ideal non-primate model. Homozygous knockout of exon 1, exon 6, and repeat A in female rabbits resulted in embryonic lethality. However, X∆ReAX females, with intact X chromosome expressing Xist, showed no abnormalities. Interestingly, there were no significant differences between females with homozygous knockout of exons 2-5 and wild-type rabbits, suggesting that exons 2, 3, 4, and 5 are less important for XCI. These findings provide evolutionary insights into Xist function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingming Liang
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Severe Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Key Laboratory for Zoonosis Research of the Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, and College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, 130062, China
| | - Lichao Zhang
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Severe Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Key Laboratory for Zoonosis Research of the Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, and College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, 130062, China
| | - Liangxue Lai
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Severe Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Key Laboratory for Zoonosis Research of the Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, and College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, 130062, China.
- CAS Key Laboratory of Regenerative Biology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, 510530, China.
- Institute of Stem Cells and Regeneration, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100039, China.
- Research Unit of Generation of Large Animal Disease Models, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Guangzhou, 510530, China.
| | - Zhanjun Li
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Severe Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Key Laboratory for Zoonosis Research of the Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, and College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, 130062, China.
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3
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Sofi S, Coverley D. CIZ1 in Xist seeded assemblies at the inactive X chromosome. Front Cell Dev Biol 2023; 11:1296600. [PMID: 38155839 PMCID: PMC10753822 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2023.1296600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2023] [Accepted: 12/04/2023] [Indexed: 12/30/2023] Open
Abstract
There is growing evidence that X-chromosome inactivation is driven by phase-separated supramolecular assemblies. However, among the many proteins recruited to the inactive X chromosome by Xist long non-coding RNA, so far only a minority (CIZ1, CELF1, SPEN, TDP-43, MATR3, PTBP1, PCGF5) have been shown to form Xist-seeded protein assemblies, and of these most have not been analyzed in detail. With focus on CIZ1, here we describe 1) the contribution of intrinsically disordered regions in RNA-dependent protein assembly formation at the inactive X chromosome, and 2) enrichment, distribution, and function of proteins within Xist-seeded assemblies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sajad Sofi
- Department of Biology, University of York, York, United Kingdom
| | - Dawn Coverley
- Department of Biology, University of York, York, United Kingdom
- York Biomedical Research Institute, University of York, York, United Kingdom
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4
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Mattick JS, Amaral PP, Carninci P, Carpenter S, Chang HY, Chen LL, Chen R, Dean C, Dinger ME, Fitzgerald KA, Gingeras TR, Guttman M, Hirose T, Huarte M, Johnson R, Kanduri C, Kapranov P, Lawrence JB, Lee JT, Mendell JT, Mercer TR, Moore KJ, Nakagawa S, Rinn JL, Spector DL, Ulitsky I, Wan Y, Wilusz JE, Wu M. Long non-coding RNAs: definitions, functions, challenges and recommendations. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 2023; 24:430-447. [PMID: 36596869 PMCID: PMC10213152 DOI: 10.1038/s41580-022-00566-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 355] [Impact Index Per Article: 355.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/16/2022] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Genes specifying long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) occupy a large fraction of the genomes of complex organisms. The term 'lncRNAs' encompasses RNA polymerase I (Pol I), Pol II and Pol III transcribed RNAs, and RNAs from processed introns. The various functions of lncRNAs and their many isoforms and interleaved relationships with other genes make lncRNA classification and annotation difficult. Most lncRNAs evolve more rapidly than protein-coding sequences, are cell type specific and regulate many aspects of cell differentiation and development and other physiological processes. Many lncRNAs associate with chromatin-modifying complexes, are transcribed from enhancers and nucleate phase separation of nuclear condensates and domains, indicating an intimate link between lncRNA expression and the spatial control of gene expression during development. lncRNAs also have important roles in the cytoplasm and beyond, including in the regulation of translation, metabolism and signalling. lncRNAs often have a modular structure and are rich in repeats, which are increasingly being shown to be relevant to their function. In this Consensus Statement, we address the definition and nomenclature of lncRNAs and their conservation, expression, phenotypic visibility, structure and functions. We also discuss research challenges and provide recommendations to advance the understanding of the roles of lncRNAs in development, cell biology and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- John S Mattick
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, UNSW, Sydney, NSW, Australia.
- UNSW RNA Institute, UNSW, Sydney, NSW, Australia.
| | - Paulo P Amaral
- INSPER Institute of Education and Research, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Piero Carninci
- RIKEN Center for Integrative Medical Sciences, Yokohama, Japan
- Human Technopole, Milan, Italy
| | - Susan Carpenter
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | - Howard Y Chang
- Center for Personal Dynamics Regulomes, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
- Department of Dermatology, Stanford, CA, USA
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Ling-Ling Chen
- CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Runsheng Chen
- Key Laboratory of RNA Biology, Center for Big Data Research in Health, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Caroline Dean
- John Innes Centre, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, UK
| | - Marcel E Dinger
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, UNSW, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- UNSW RNA Institute, UNSW, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Katherine A Fitzgerald
- Division of Innate Immunity, Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA
| | | | - Mitchell Guttman
- Division of Biology and Biological Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
| | - Tetsuro Hirose
- Graduate School of Frontier Biosciences, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Maite Huarte
- Department of Gene Therapy and Regulation of Gene Expression, Center for Applied Medical Research, University of Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
- Institute of Health Research of Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Rory Johnson
- School of Biology and Environmental Science, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
- Conway Institute for Biomolecular and Biomedical Research, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Chandrasekhar Kanduri
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Institute of Biomedicine, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Philipp Kapranov
- Institute of Genomics, School of Medicine, Huaqiao University, Xiamen, China
| | - Jeanne B Lawrence
- Department of Neurology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA
| | - Jeannie T Lee
- Department of Molecular Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Joshua T Mendell
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
- Department of Molecular Biology, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Timothy R Mercer
- Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Kathryn J Moore
- Department of Medicine, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Shinichi Nakagawa
- RNA Biology Laboratory, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - John L Rinn
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, USA
- BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - David L Spector
- Cold Spring Harbour Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbour, NY, USA
| | - Igor Ulitsky
- Department of Biological Regulation, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Yue Wan
- Laboratory of RNA Genomics and Structure, Genome Institute of Singapore, A*STAR, Singapore, Singapore
- Department of Biochemistry, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Jeremy E Wilusz
- Verna and Marrs McLean Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Therapeutic Innovation Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Mian Wu
- Translational Research Institute, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, Academy of Medical Science, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
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5
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Abstract
It has long been proposed that nuclear RNAs might play an important role in organizing the structure of the nucleus. Initial experiments performed more than 30 years ago found that global disruption of RNA led to visible rearrangements of nuclear organization. Yet, this idea remained controversial for many years, in large part because it was unclear what specific RNAs might be involved, and which specific nuclear structures might be dependent on RNA. Over the past few years, the contributions of RNA to organizing nuclear structures have become clearer with the discovery that many nuclear bodies are enriched for specific noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs); in specific cases, ncRNAs have been shown to be essential for establishment and maintenance of these nuclear structures. More recently, many different ncRNAs have been shown to play critical roles in initiating the three-dimensional (3D) spatial organization of DNA, RNA, and protein molecules in the nucleus. These examples, combined with global imaging and genomic experiments, have begun to paint a picture of a broader role for RNA in nuclear organization and to uncover a unifying mechanism that may explain why RNA is a uniquely suited molecule for this role. In this review, we provide an overview of the history of RNA and nuclear structure and discuss key examples of RNA-mediated bodies, the global roles of ncRNAs in shaping nuclear structure, and emerging insights into mechanisms of RNA-mediated nuclear organization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofia A Quinodoz
- Division of Biology and Biological Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, USA
| | - Mitchell Guttman
- Division of Biology and Biological Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, USA
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6
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Ryabykh GK, Mylarshchikov DE, Kuznetsov SV, Sigorskikh AI, Ponomareva TY, Zharikova AA, Mironov AA. RNA–Chromatin Interactome: What? Where? When? Mol Biol 2022. [DOI: 10.1134/s0026893322020121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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7
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X-chromosome reactivation: a concise review. Biochem Soc Trans 2021; 49:2797-2805. [PMID: 34821360 DOI: 10.1042/bst20210777] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2021] [Revised: 11/03/2021] [Accepted: 11/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Mammalian females (XX) silence transcription on one of the two X chromosomes to compensate the expression dosage with males (XY). This process - named X-chromosome inactivation - entails a variety of epigenetic modifications that act synergistically to maintain silencing and make it heritable through cell divisions. Genes along the inactive X chromosome are, indeed, refractory to reactivation. Nonetheless, X-chromosome reactivation can occur alongside with epigenome reprogramming or by perturbing multiple silencing pathways. Here we review the events associated with X-chromosome reactivation during in vivo and in vitro reprogramming and highlight recent efforts in inducing Xi reactivation by molecular perturbations. This provides us with a first understanding of the mechanisms underlying X-chromosome reactivation, which could be tackled for therapeutic purposes.
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8
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Abstract
Although long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) are generally expressed at low levels, emerging evidence has revealed that many play important roles in gene regulation by a variety of mechanisms as they engage with proteins. Given that the abundance of proteins often greatly exceeds that of their interacting lncRNAs, quantification of the relative abundance, or even the exact stoichiometry in some cases, within lncRNA-protein complexes is helpful for understanding of the mechanism(s) of action of lncRNAs. We discuss methods used to examine lncRNA and protein expression at the single cell, subcellular, and suborganelle levels, the average and local lncRNA concentration in cells, as well as how lncRNAs can modulate the functions of their interacting proteins even at a low stoichiometric concentration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Man Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Molecular Andrology, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Liang-Zhong Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Molecular Andrology, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Ling-Ling Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Molecular Andrology, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
- School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China
- School of Life Science, Hangzhou Institute for Advanced Study, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou 310024, China
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9
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Trotman JB, Braceros KCA, Cherney RE, Murvin MM, Calabrese JM. The control of polycomb repressive complexes by long noncoding RNAs. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS. RNA 2021; 12:e1657. [PMID: 33861025 PMCID: PMC8500928 DOI: 10.1002/wrna.1657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2020] [Revised: 01/12/2021] [Accepted: 03/19/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The polycomb repressive complexes 1 and 2 (PRCs; PRC1 and PRC2) are conserved histone-modifying enzymes that often function cooperatively to repress gene expression. The PRCs are regulated by long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) in complex ways. On the one hand, specific lncRNAs cause the PRCs to engage with chromatin and repress gene expression over genomic regions that can span megabases. On the other hand, the PRCs bind RNA with seemingly little sequence specificity, and at least in the case of PRC2, direct RNA-binding has the effect of inhibiting the enzyme. Thus, some RNAs appear to promote PRC activity, while others may inhibit it. The reasons behind this apparent dichotomy are unclear. The most potent PRC-activating lncRNAs associate with chromatin and are predominantly unspliced or harbor unusually long exons. Emerging data imply that these lncRNAs promote PRC activity through internal RNA sequence elements that arise and disappear rapidly in evolutionary time. These sequence elements may function by interacting with common subsets of RNA-binding proteins that recruit or stabilize PRCs on chromatin. This article is categorized under: RNA Interactions with Proteins and Other Molecules > Protein-RNA Recognition RNA Interactions with Proteins and Other Molecules > RNA-Protein Complexes RNA Interactions with Proteins and Other Molecules > Protein-RNA Interactions: Functional Implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jackson B. Trotman
- Department of Pharmacology and Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Keean C. A. Braceros
- Department of Pharmacology and Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
- Curriculum in Mechanistic, Interdisciplinary Studies of Biological Systems, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Rachel E. Cherney
- Department of Pharmacology and Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
- Curriculum in Genetics and Molecular Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - McKenzie M. Murvin
- Department of Pharmacology and Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
- Curriculum in Genetics and Molecular Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - J. Mauro Calabrese
- Department of Pharmacology and Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
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10
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Douka K, Birds I, Wang D, Kosteletos A, Clayton S, Byford A, Vasconcelos EJR, O'Connell MJ, Deuchars J, Whitehouse A, Aspden JL. Cytoplasmic long noncoding RNAs are differentially regulated and translated during human neuronal differentiation. RNA (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2021; 27:1082-1101. [PMID: 34193551 PMCID: PMC8370745 DOI: 10.1261/rna.078782.121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2021] [Accepted: 06/22/2021] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The expression of long noncoding RNAs is highly enriched in the human nervous system. However, the function of neuronal lncRNAs in the cytoplasm and their potential translation remains poorly understood. Here we performed Poly-Ribo-Seq to understand the interaction of lncRNAs with the translation machinery and the functional consequences during neuronal differentiation of human SH-SY5Y cells. We discovered 237 cytoplasmic lncRNAs up-regulated during early neuronal differentiation, 58%-70% of which are associated with polysome translation complexes. Among these polysome-associated lncRNAs, we find 45 small ORFs to be actively translated, 17 specifically upon differentiation. Fifteen of 45 of the translated lncRNA-smORFs exhibit sequence conservation within Hominidea, suggesting they are under strong selective constraint in this clade. The profiling of publicly available data sets revealed that 8/45 of the translated lncRNAs are dynamically expressed during human brain development, and 22/45 are associated with cancers of the central nervous system. One translated lncRNA we discovered is LINC01116, which is induced upon differentiation and contains an 87 codon smORF exhibiting increased ribosome profiling signal upon differentiation. The resulting LINC01116 peptide localizes to neurites. Knockdown of LINC01116 results in a significant reduction of neurite length in differentiated cells, indicating it contributes to neuronal differentiation. Our findings indicate cytoplasmic lncRNAs interact with translation complexes, are a noncanonical source of novel peptides, and contribute to neuronal function and disease. Specifically, we demonstrate a novel functional role for LINC01116 during human neuronal differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katerina Douka
- School of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, United Kingdom
- LeedsOmics, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, United Kingdom
| | - Isabel Birds
- School of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, United Kingdom
- LeedsOmics, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, United Kingdom
| | - Dapeng Wang
- LeedsOmics, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, United Kingdom
| | - Andreas Kosteletos
- School of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, United Kingdom
- LeedsOmics, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, United Kingdom
| | - Sophie Clayton
- School of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, United Kingdom
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, United Kingdom
| | - Abigail Byford
- School of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, United Kingdom
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, United Kingdom
| | | | - Mary J O'Connell
- School of Life Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, The University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2UH, United Kingdom
| | - Jim Deuchars
- LeedsOmics, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, United Kingdom
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, United Kingdom
| | - Adrian Whitehouse
- School of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, United Kingdom
- LeedsOmics, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, United Kingdom
- Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular Biology, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, United Kingdom
| | - Julie L Aspden
- School of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, United Kingdom
- LeedsOmics, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, United Kingdom
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11
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Boeren J, Gribnau J. Xist-mediated chromatin changes that establish silencing of an entire X chromosome in mammals. Curr Opin Cell Biol 2020; 70:44-50. [PMID: 33360102 DOI: 10.1016/j.ceb.2020.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2020] [Revised: 11/17/2020] [Accepted: 11/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
X chromosome inactivation (XCI) ensures an equal gene dosage between the sexes in placental mammals. Xist, a modular multi-domain X-encoded long non-coding RNA coats the X chromosome in cis during XCI. Xist recruits chromatin remodelers and repressor complexes ensuring silencing of the inactive X (Xi). Here, we review the recent work focused on the role of Xist functional repeats and interacting RNA-binding factors in the establishment of the silent state. Xist orchestrates recruitment of remodelers and repressors that first facilitate removal of the active chromatin landscape and subsequently direct the transition into a repressive heterochromatic environment. Some of these factors affect silencing on a chromosome-wide scale, while others display gene-specific silencing defects. The temporal order of recruitment shows each silencing step is party dependent on one another. After the Xi is established, many of the factors are dispensable, and a different repertoire of proteins ensure the silenced Xi is maintained and propagated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey Boeren
- Department of Developmental Biology, Erasmus University Medical Center, the Netherlands; Oncode Institute, Erasmus University Medical Center, the Netherlands
| | - Joost Gribnau
- Department of Developmental Biology, Erasmus University Medical Center, the Netherlands; Oncode Institute, Erasmus University Medical Center, the Netherlands.
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12
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Trotman JB, Lee DM, Cherney RE, Kim SO, Inoue K, Schertzer MD, Bischoff SR, Cowley DO, Calabrese J. Elements at the 5' end of Xist harbor SPEN-independent transcriptional antiterminator activity. Nucleic Acids Res 2020; 48:10500-10517. [PMID: 32986830 PMCID: PMC7544216 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkaa789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2020] [Revised: 08/20/2020] [Accepted: 09/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The Xist lncRNA requires Repeat A, a conserved RNA element located in its 5' end, to induce gene silencing during X-chromosome inactivation. Intriguingly, Repeat A is also required for production of Xist. While silencing by Repeat A requires the protein SPEN, how Repeat A promotes Xist production remains unclear. We report that in mouse embryonic stem cells, expression of a transgene comprising the first two kilobases of Xist (Xist-2kb) causes transcriptional readthrough of downstream polyadenylation sequences. Readthrough required Repeat A and the ∼750 nucleotides downstream, did not require SPEN, and was attenuated by splicing. Despite associating with SPEN and chromatin, Xist-2kb did not robustly silence transcription, whereas a 5.5-kb Xist transgene robustly silenced transcription and read through its polyadenylation sequence. Longer, spliced Xist transgenes also induced robust silencing yet terminated efficiently. Thus, in contexts examined here, Xist requires sequence elements beyond its first two kilobases to robustly silence transcription, and the 5' end of Xist harbors SPEN-independent transcriptional antiterminator activity that can repress proximal cleavage and polyadenylation. In endogenous contexts, this antiterminator activity may help produce full-length Xist RNA while rendering the Xist locus resistant to silencing by the same repressive complexes that the lncRNA recruits to other genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jackson B Trotman
- Department of Pharmacology and Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - David M Lee
- Department of Pharmacology and Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
- Curriculum in Genetics and Molecular Biology, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Rachel E Cherney
- Department of Pharmacology and Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
- Curriculum in Genetics and Molecular Biology, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Susan O Kim
- Department of Pharmacology and Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Kaoru Inoue
- Department of Pharmacology and Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Megan D Schertzer
- Department of Pharmacology and Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
- Curriculum in Genetics and Molecular Biology, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Steven R Bischoff
- Animal Models Core, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 120 Mason Farm Road, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Dale O Cowley
- Animal Models Core, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 120 Mason Farm Road, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - J Mauro Calabrese
- Department of Pharmacology and Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
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13
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Carter AC, Xu J, Nakamoto MY, Wei Y, Zarnegar BJ, Shi Q, Broughton JP, Ransom RC, Salhotra A, Nagaraja SD, Li R, Dou DR, Yost KE, Cho SW, Mistry A, Longaker MT, Khavari PA, Batey RT, Wuttke DS, Chang HY. Spen links RNA-mediated endogenous retrovirus silencing and X chromosome inactivation. eLife 2020; 9:e54508. [PMID: 32379046 PMCID: PMC7282817 DOI: 10.7554/elife.54508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2019] [Accepted: 05/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The Xist lncRNA mediates X chromosome inactivation (XCI). Here we show that Spen, an Xist-binding repressor protein essential for XCI , binds to ancient retroviral RNA, performing a surveillance role to recruit chromatin silencing machinery to these parasitic loci. Spen loss activates a subset of endogenous retroviral (ERV) elements in mouse embryonic stem cells, with gain of chromatin accessibility, active histone modifications, and ERV RNA transcription. Spen binds directly to ERV RNAs that show structural similarity to the A-repeat of Xist, a region critical for Xist-mediated gene silencing. ERV RNA and Xist A-repeat bind the RRM domains of Spen in a competitive manner. Insertion of an ERV into an A-repeat deficient Xist rescues binding of Xist RNA to Spen and results in strictly local gene silencing in cis. These results suggest that Xist may coopt transposable element RNA-protein interactions to repurpose powerful antiviral chromatin silencing machinery for sex chromosome dosage compensation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ava C Carter
- Center for Personal Dynamic Regulomes, Stanford UniversityStanfordUnited States
| | - Jin Xu
- Center for Personal Dynamic Regulomes, Stanford UniversityStanfordUnited States
| | - Meagan Y Nakamoto
- Department of Biochemistry, University of ColoradoBoulderUnited States
| | - Yuning Wei
- Center for Personal Dynamic Regulomes, Stanford UniversityStanfordUnited States
| | - Brian J Zarnegar
- Department of Dermatology, Stanford University School of MedicineStanfordUnited States
| | - Quanming Shi
- Center for Personal Dynamic Regulomes, Stanford UniversityStanfordUnited States
| | - James P Broughton
- Center for Personal Dynamic Regulomes, Stanford UniversityStanfordUnited States
| | - Ryan C Ransom
- Department of Surgery, Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Stanford University School of MedicineStanfordUnited States
| | - Ankit Salhotra
- Department of Surgery, Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Stanford University School of MedicineStanfordUnited States
| | - Surya D Nagaraja
- Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford UniversityStanfordUnited States
| | - Rui Li
- Center for Personal Dynamic Regulomes, Stanford UniversityStanfordUnited States
| | - Diana R Dou
- Center for Personal Dynamic Regulomes, Stanford UniversityStanfordUnited States
| | - Kathryn E Yost
- Center for Personal Dynamic Regulomes, Stanford UniversityStanfordUnited States
| | - Seung-Woo Cho
- Center for Personal Dynamic Regulomes, Stanford UniversityStanfordUnited States
| | - Anil Mistry
- Novartis Institute for Biomedical ResearchCambridgeUnited States
| | - Michael T Longaker
- Department of Surgery, Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Stanford University School of MedicineStanfordUnited States
- Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford UniversityStanfordUnited States
| | - Paul A Khavari
- Department of Dermatology, Stanford University School of MedicineStanfordUnited States
| | - Robert T Batey
- Department of Biochemistry, University of ColoradoBoulderUnited States
| | - Deborah S Wuttke
- Department of Biochemistry, University of ColoradoBoulderUnited States
| | - Howard Y Chang
- Center for Personal Dynamic Regulomes, Stanford UniversityStanfordUnited States
- Department of Dermatology, Stanford University School of MedicineStanfordUnited States
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Stanford UniversityStanfordUnited States
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14
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Abstract
The non-coding RNA Xist regulates the process of X chromosome inactivation, in which one of the two X chromosomes present in cells of early female mammalian embryos is selectively and coordinately shut down. Remarkably Xist RNA functions in cis, affecting only the chromosome from which it is transcribed. This feature is attributable to the unique propensity of Xist RNA to accumulate over the territory of the chromosome on which it is synthesized, contrasting with the majority of RNAs that are rapidly exported out of the cell nucleus. In this review I provide an overview of the progress that has been made towards understanding localized accumulation of Xist RNA, drawing attention to evidence that some other non-coding RNAs probably function in a highly analogous manner. I describe a simple model for localized accumulation of Xist RNA and discuss key unresolved questions that need to be addressed in future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neil Brockdorff
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3QU, UK
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15
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Sun D, Maney DL, Layman TS, Chatterjee P, Yi SV. Regional epigenetic differentiation of the Z Chromosome between sexes in a female heterogametic system. Genome Res 2019; 29:1673-1684. [PMID: 31548356 PMCID: PMC6771406 DOI: 10.1101/gr.248641.119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2019] [Accepted: 08/07/2019] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
In male heterogametic systems, the X Chromosome is epigenetically differentiated between males and females, to facilitate dosage compensation. For example, the X Chromosome in female mammals is largely inactivated. Relative to well-studied male heterogametic systems, the extent of epigenetic differentiation between male and female Z Chromosomes in female heterogametic species, which often lack complete dosage compensation, is poorly understood. Here, we examined the chromosomal DNA methylation landscapes of male and female Z Chromosomes in two distantly related avian species, namely chicken and white-throated sparrow. We show that, in contrast to the pattern in mammals, male and female Z Chromosomes in these species exhibit highly similar patterns of DNA methylation, which is consistent with weak or absent dosage compensation. We further demonstrate that the epigenetic differences between male and female chicken Z Chromosomes are localized to a few regions, including a previously identified male hypermethylated region 1 (MHM1; CGNC: 80601). We discovered a novel region with elevated male-to-female methylation ratios on the chicken Z Chromosome (male hypermethylated region 2 [MHM2]; CGNC: 80602). The MHM1 and MHM2, despite little sequence similarity between them, bear similar molecular features that are likely associated with their functions. We present evidence consistent with female hypomethylation of MHMs and up-regulation of nearby genes. Therefore, despite little methylation differentiation between sexes, extremely localized DNA methylation differences between male and female chicken Z Chromosomes have evolved and affect expression of nearby regions. Our findings offer new insights into epigenetic regulation of gene expression between sexes in female heterogametic systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Sun
- School of Biological Sciences, Institute for Bioengineering and Bioscience, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, USA
| | - Donna L Maney
- Department of Psychology, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, USA
| | - Thomas S Layman
- School of Biological Sciences, Institute for Bioengineering and Bioscience, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, USA
| | - Paramita Chatterjee
- School of Biological Sciences, Institute for Bioengineering and Bioscience, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, USA
| | - Soojin V Yi
- School of Biological Sciences, Institute for Bioengineering and Bioscience, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, USA
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16
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Zhang X, Li T, Wang J, Li J, Chen L, Liu C. Identification of Cancer-Related Long Non-Coding RNAs Using XGBoost With High Accuracy. Front Genet 2019; 10:735. [PMID: 31456817 PMCID: PMC6701491 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2019.00735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2019] [Accepted: 07/12/2019] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
In the past decade, hundreds of long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) have been identified as significant players in diverse types of cancer; however, the functions and mechanisms of most lncRNAs in cancer remain unclear. Several computational methods have been developed to detect associations between cancer and lncRNAs, yet those approaches have limitations in both sensitivity and specificity. With the goal of improving the prediction accuracy for associations of lncRNA with cancer, we upgraded our previously developed cancer-related lncRNA classifier, CRlncRC, to generate CRlncRC2. CRlncRC2 is an eXtreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost) machine learning framework, including Synthetic Minority Over-sampling Technique (SMOTE)-based over-sampling, along with Laplacian Score-based feature selection. Ten-fold cross-validation showed that the AUC value of CRlncRC2 for identification of cancer-related lncRNAs is much higher than previously reported by CRlncRC and others. Compared with CRlncRC, the number of features used by CRlncRC2 dropped from 85 to 51. Finally, we identified 439 cancer-related lncRNA candidates using CRlncRC2. To evaluate the accuracy of the predictions, we first consulted the cancer-related long non-coding RNA database Lnc2Cancer v2.0 and relevant literature for supporting information, then conducted statistical analysis of somatic mutations, distance from cancer genes, and differential expression in tumor tissues, using various data sets. The results showed that our approach was highly reliable for identifying cancer-related lncRNA candidates. Notably, the highest ranked candidate, lncRNA AC074117.1, has not been reported previously; however, integrated multi-omics analyses demonstrate that it is the target of multiple cancer-related miRNAs and interacts with adjacent protein-coding genes, suggesting that it may act as a cancer-related competing endogenous RNA, which warrants further investigation. In conclusion, CRlncRC2 is an effective and accurate method for identification of cancer-related lncRNAs, and has potential to contribute to the functional annotation of lncRNAs and guide cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuan Zhang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Plant Resources and Sustainable Use, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Tianjun Li
- Department of Computer and Information Science, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Macau, Macau, China
| | - Jun Wang
- Institute of Medical Sciences, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Jing Li
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Plant Resources and Sustainable Use, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, China
| | - Long Chen
- Department of Computer and Information Science, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Macau, Macau, China
| | - Changning Liu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Plant Resources and Sustainable Use, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,Department of Computer and Information Science, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Macau, Macau, China.,Institute of Medical Sciences, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
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17
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Sprague D, Waters SA, Kirk JM, Wang JR, Samollow PB, Waters PD, Calabrese JM. Nonlinear sequence similarity between the Xist and Rsx long noncoding RNAs suggests shared functions of tandem repeat domains. RNA (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2019; 25:1004-1019. [PMID: 31097619 PMCID: PMC6633197 DOI: 10.1261/rna.069815.118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2018] [Accepted: 05/14/2019] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
The marsupial inactive X chromosome expresses a long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) called Rsx that has been proposed to be the functional analog of eutherian Xist Despite the possibility that Xist and Rsx encode related functions, the two lncRNAs harbor no linear sequence similarity. However, both lncRNAs harbor domains of tandemly repeated sequence. In Xist, these repeat domains are known to be critical for function. Using k-mer based comparison, we show that the repeat domains of Xist and Rsx unexpectedly partition into two major clusters that each harbor substantial levels of nonlinear sequence similarity. Xist Repeats B, C, and D were most similar to each other and to Rsx Repeat 1, whereas Xist Repeats A and E were most similar to each other and to Rsx Repeats 2, 3, and 4. Similarities at the level of k-mers corresponded to domain-specific enrichment of protein-binding motifs. Within individual domains, protein-binding motifs were often enriched to extreme levels. Our data support the hypothesis that Xist and Rsx encode similar functions through different spatial arrangements of functionally analogous protein-binding domains. We propose that the two clusters of repeat domains in Xist and Rsx function in part to cooperatively recruit PRC1 and PRC2 to chromatin. The physical manner in which these domains engage with protein cofactors may be just as critical to the function of the domains as the protein cofactors themselves. The general approaches we outline in this report should prove useful in the study of any set of RNAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Sprague
- Department of Pharmacology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, USA
- Curriculum in Pharmacology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, USA
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, USA
| | - Shafagh A Waters
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
- School of Women's and Children's Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
| | - Jessime M Kirk
- Department of Pharmacology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, USA
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, USA
- Curriculum in Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, USA
| | - Jeremy R Wang
- Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, USA
| | - Paul B Samollow
- Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843, USA
| | - Paul D Waters
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
| | - J Mauro Calabrese
- Department of Pharmacology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, USA
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, USA
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18
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West KA, Lagos D. Long Non-Coding RNA Function in CD4 + T Cells: What We Know and What Next? Noncoding RNA 2019; 5:ncrna5030043. [PMID: 31336952 PMCID: PMC6789709 DOI: 10.3390/ncrna5030043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2019] [Revised: 07/03/2019] [Accepted: 07/12/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The non-coding genome has previously been regarded as "junk" DNA; however, emerging evidence suggests that the non-coding genome accounts for some of the greater biological complexity observed in mammals. Research into long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) has gathered speed in recent years, and a growing body of evidence has implicated lncRNAs in a vast range of cellular functions including gene regulation, chromosome organisation and splicing. T helper cells offer an ideal platform for the study of lncRNAs given they function as part of a complex cellular network and undergo remarkable and finely regulated gene expression changes upon antigenic stimulation. Using various knock down and RNA interaction studies several lncRNAs have been shown to be crucial for T helper cell differentiation, activation and function. Given that RNA targeting therapeutics are rapidly gaining attention, further understanding the mechanistic role of lncRNAs in a T helper context is an exciting area of research, as it may unearth a wide range of new candidate targets for treatment of CD4+ mediated pathologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katie A West
- York Biomedical Research Institute, University of York, Wentworth Way, York YO10 5DD, UK
- Department of Biology, University of York, Wentworth Way, York YO10 5DD, UK
- Hull York Medical School, University of York, Wentworth Way, York YO10 5DD, UK
| | - Dimitris Lagos
- York Biomedical Research Institute, University of York, Wentworth Way, York YO10 5DD, UK.
- Hull York Medical School, University of York, Wentworth Way, York YO10 5DD, UK.
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