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Flori L, Piragine E, Calderone V, Testai L. Role of hydrogen sulfide in the regulation of lipid metabolism: Implications on cardiovascular health. Life Sci 2024; 341:122491. [PMID: 38336275 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2024.122491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2023] [Revised: 01/29/2024] [Accepted: 02/05/2024] [Indexed: 02/12/2024]
Abstract
The World Health Organization (WHO) defines obesity as an urgency for health and a social emergency. Today around 39 % of people is overweight, of these over 13 % is obese. It is well-consolidated that the adipose cells are deputy to lipid storage under caloric excess; however, despite the classical idea that adipose tissue has exclusively a passive function, now it is known to be deeply involved in the regulation of systemic metabolism in physiological as well as under obesogenic conditions, with consequences on cardiovascular health. Beside two traditional types of adipose cells (white and brown), recently the beige one has been highlighted as the consequence of the healthy remodeling of white adipocytes, confirming their metabolic adaptability. In this direction, pharmacological, nutraceutical and nutrient-based approaches are addressed to positively influence inflammation and metabolism, thus contributing to reduce the obese-associated cardiovascular risk. In this scenario, hydrogen sulfide emerges as a new mediator that may regulate crucial targets involved in the regulation of metabolism. The current evidence demonstrates that hydrogen sulfide may induce peroxisome proliferator activated receptor γ (PPARγ), a crucial mediator of adipogenesis, inhibit the phosphorylation of perlipin-1 (plin-1), a protein implicated in the lipolysis, and finally promote browning process, through the release of irisin from skeletal muscle. The results summarized in this review suggest an important role of hydrogen sulfide in the regulation of metabolism and in the prevention/treatment of obese-associated cardiovascular diseases and propose new insight on the putative mechanisms underlying the release of hydrogen sulfide or its biosynthesis, delineating a further exciting field of application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorenzo Flori
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Pisa, via Bonanno, 6-56120 Pisa, Italy.
| | - Eugenia Piragine
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Pisa, via Bonanno, 6-56120 Pisa, Italy.
| | - Vincenzo Calderone
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Pisa, via Bonanno, 6-56120 Pisa, Italy.
| | - Lara Testai
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Pisa, via Bonanno, 6-56120 Pisa, Italy.
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2
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Martins FF, Martins BC, Teixeira AVS, Ajackson M, Souza-Mello V, Daleprane JB. Brown Adipose Tissue, Batokines, and Bioactive Compounds in Foods: An Update. Mol Nutr Food Res 2024; 68:e2300634. [PMID: 38402434 DOI: 10.1002/mnfr.202300634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2023] [Revised: 12/20/2023] [Indexed: 02/26/2024]
Abstract
The discovery of metabolically active brown adipose tissue (BAT) in human adults and the worldwide increase in obesity and obesity-related chronic noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) has made BAT a therapeutic target in the last two decades. The potential of BAT to oxidize fatty acids rapidly and increase energy expenditure inversely correlates with adiposity, insulin and glucose resistance, and cardiovascular and metabolic diseases. Currently, BAT is recognized by a new molecular signature; several BAT-derived molecules that act positively on target tissues have been identified and collectively called batokines. Bioactive compounds present in foods are endowed with thermogenic properties that increase BAT activation signaling. Understanding the mechanisms that lead to BAT activation and the batokines secreted by it within the thermogenic state is fundamental for its recruitment and management of obesity and NCDs. This review contributes to recent updates on the morphophysiology of BAT, its endocrine role in obesity, and the main bioactive compounds present in foods involved in classical and nonclassical thermogenic pathways activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabiane Ferreira Martins
- Laboratory for Studies of Interactions Between Nutrition and Genetics, LEING, Department of Basic and Experimental Nutrition, Rio de Janeiro State University, São Francisco Xavier 524, Rio de Janeiro, 20550900, Brazil
- Department of Morphology, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Rio Grande do Norte, 59078-970, Brazil
| | - Bruna Cadete Martins
- Laboratory for Studies of Interactions Between Nutrition and Genetics, LEING, Department of Basic and Experimental Nutrition, Rio de Janeiro State University, São Francisco Xavier 524, Rio de Janeiro, 20550900, Brazil
| | - Ananda Vitoria Silva Teixeira
- Laboratory for Studies of Interactions Between Nutrition and Genetics, LEING, Department of Basic and Experimental Nutrition, Rio de Janeiro State University, São Francisco Xavier 524, Rio de Janeiro, 20550900, Brazil
| | - Matheus Ajackson
- Laboratory for Studies of Interactions Between Nutrition and Genetics, LEING, Department of Basic and Experimental Nutrition, Rio de Janeiro State University, São Francisco Xavier 524, Rio de Janeiro, 20550900, Brazil
| | - Vanessa Souza-Mello
- Laboratory of Morphometry, Metabolism and Cardiovascular Diseases, Biomedical Center, Institute of Biology, Rio de Janeiro State University, Rio de Janeiro, 205521031, Brazil
| | - Julio Beltrame Daleprane
- Laboratory for Studies of Interactions Between Nutrition and Genetics, LEING, Department of Basic and Experimental Nutrition, Rio de Janeiro State University, São Francisco Xavier 524, Rio de Janeiro, 20550900, Brazil
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Flori L, Piragine E, Spezzini J, Citi V, Calderone V, Martelli A. Influence of Polyphenols on Adipose Tissue: Sirtuins as Pivotal Players in the Browning Process. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24119276. [PMID: 37298226 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24119276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2023] [Revised: 05/09/2023] [Accepted: 05/24/2023] [Indexed: 06/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Adipose tissue (AT) can be classified into two different types: (i) white adipose tissue (WAT), which represents the largest amount of total AT, and has the main function of storing fatty acids for energy needs and (ii) brown adipose tissue (BAT), rich in mitochondria and specialized in thermogenesis. Many exogenous stimuli, e.g., cold, exercise or pharmacological/nutraceutical tools, promote the phenotypic change of WAT to a beige phenotype (BeAT), with intermediate characteristics between BAT and WAT; this process is called "browning". The modulation of AT differentiation towards WAT or BAT, and the phenotypic switch to BeAT, seem to be crucial steps to limit weight gain. Polyphenols are emerging as compounds able to induce browning and thermogenesis processes, potentially via activation of sirtuins. SIRT1 (the most investigated sirtuin) activates a factor involved in mitochondrial biogenesis, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator 1α (PGC-1α), which, through peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPAR-γ) modulation, induces typical genes of BAT and inhibits genes of WAT during the transdifferentiation process in white adipocytes. This review article aims to summarize the current evidence, from pre-clinical studies to clinical trials, on the ability of polyphenols to promote the browning process, with a specific focus on the potential role of sirtuins in the pharmacological/nutraceutical effects of natural compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorenzo Flori
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy
| | | | - Jacopo Spezzini
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy
| | - Valentina Citi
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy
| | - Vincenzo Calderone
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy
- Interdepartmental Research Center "Nutrafood: Nutraceutica e Alimentazione per la Salute", University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy
- Interdepartmental Research Center "Biology and Pathology of Ageing", University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy
| | - Alma Martelli
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy
- Interdepartmental Research Center "Nutrafood: Nutraceutica e Alimentazione per la Salute", University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy
- Interdepartmental Research Center "Biology and Pathology of Ageing", University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy
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4
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Furuuchi R, Shimizu I, Yoshida Y, Katsuumi G, Suda M, Kubota Y, Walsh K, Minamino T. Endothelial SIRT-1 has a critical role in the maintenance of capillarization in brown adipose tissue. iScience 2022; 25:105424. [PMID: 36388988 PMCID: PMC9641227 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2022.105424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2022] [Revised: 09/06/2022] [Accepted: 10/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Brown adipose tissue (BAT) has critical roles in thermogenesis and systemic metabolism. Capillary rarefaction was reported to develop in BAT with dietary obesity, and previous studies showed that suppression of vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF-A) reduced capillary density in BAT, promoting the functional decline of this organ. Capillarization is regulated through the balance between angiogenesis and vasculogenesis on the one hand and apoptosis of endothelial cells (ECs) on the other; however, the role of EC apoptosis in BAT remained to be explored. In studies testing the role of boysenberry polyphenols (BoyP) in BAT, we found that BoyP decreased EC apoptosis, enhanced capillarization in BAT, and ameliorated dietary BAT dysfunction, which was associated with the upregulation of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide-dependent protein deacetylase sirtuin 1 (SIRT-1) in ECs. Our studies suggest that EC SIRT-1 would be one of the potential targets of BoyP that contributes to BAT capillarization and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryo Furuuchi
- Department of Cardiovascular Biology and Medicine, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8431, Japan,Bourbon Corporation, Niigata 945-8611, Japan,Department of Advanced Senotherapeutics, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, Tokyo 113-8431, Japan
| | - Ippei Shimizu
- Department of Cardiovascular Biology and Medicine, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8431, Japan,Corresponding author
| | - Yohko Yoshida
- Department of Cardiovascular Biology and Medicine, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8431, Japan,Department of Advanced Senotherapeutics, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, Tokyo 113-8431, Japan
| | - Goro Katsuumi
- Department of Cardiovascular Biology and Medicine, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8431, Japan
| | - Masayoshi Suda
- Department of Cardiovascular Biology and Medicine, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8431, Japan
| | - Yoshiaki Kubota
- Department of Anatomy, Keio University School of Medicine, Tokyo 160-8582, Japan
| | - Kenneth Walsh
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Robert M. Berne Cardiovascular Research Center, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA
| | - Tohru Minamino
- Department of Cardiovascular Biology and Medicine, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8431, Japan,Japan Agency for Medical Research and Development-Core Research for Evolutionary Medical Science and Technology (AMED-CREST), Japan Agency for Medical Research and Development, Tokyo 100-0004, Japan,Corresponding author
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5
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Qu Z, Zhou S, Li P, Liu C, Yuan B, Zhang S, Liu A. Natural products and skeletal muscle health. J Nutr Biochem 2021; 93:108619. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jnutbio.2021.108619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2020] [Revised: 11/26/2020] [Accepted: 02/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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6
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Gómez-Zorita S, Milton-Laskibar I, Macarulla MT, Biasutto L, Fernández-Quintela A, Miranda J, Lasa A, Segues N, Bujanda L, Portillo MP. Pterostilbene modifies triglyceride metabolism in hepatic steatosis induced by high-fat high-fructose feeding: a comparison with its analog resveratrol. Food Funct 2021; 12:3266-3279. [PMID: 33877249 DOI: 10.1039/d0fo03320k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The use of phenolic compounds as a new therapeutic approach against NAFLD has emerged recently. In the present study, we aim to study the effect of pterostilbene in the prevention of liver steatosis developed as a consequence of high-fat (saturated) high-fructose feeding, by analysing the changes induced in metabolic pathways involved in triglyceride accumulation. Interestingly, a comparison with the anti-steatotic effect of its parent compound resveratrol will be made for the first time. Rats were distributed into 5 experimental groups and fed either a standard laboratory diet or a high-fat high-fructose diet supplemented with or without pterostilbene (15 or 30 mg per kg per d) or resveratrol (30 mg per kg per d) for 8 weeks. Serum triglyceride, cholesterol, NEFA and transaminase levels were quantified. Liver histological analysis was carried out by haematoxylin-eosin staining. Different pathways involved in liver triglyceride metabolism, including fatty acid synthesis, uptake and oxidation, triglyceride assembly and triglyceride release, were studied. Pterostilbene was shown to partially prevent high-fat high-fructose feeding induced liver steatosis in rats, demonstrating a dose-response pattern. In this dietary model, it acts mainly by reducing de novo lipogenesis and increasing triglyceride assembly and release. Improvement in mitochondrial functionality was also appreciated. At the same dose, the magnitude of pterostilbene and resveratrol induced effects, as well as the involved mechanisms of action, were similar.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Gómez-Zorita
- Nutrition and Obesity group, Department of Nutrition and Food Science, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Lucio Lascaray Research Center, 01006 Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain.
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7
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Reguero M, Gómez de Cedrón M, Reglero G, Quintela JC, Ramírez de Molina A. Natural Extracts to Augment Energy Expenditure as a Complementary Approach to Tackle Obesity and Associated Metabolic Alterations. Biomolecules 2021; 11:biom11030412. [PMID: 33802173 PMCID: PMC7999034 DOI: 10.3390/biom11030412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2021] [Revised: 03/03/2021] [Accepted: 03/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Obesity is the epidemic of the 21st century. In developing countries, the prevalence of obesity continues to rise, and obesity is occurring at younger ages. Obesity and associated metabolic stress disrupt the whole-body physiology. Adipocytes are critical components of the systemic metabolic control, functioning as an endocrine organ. The enlarged adipocytes during obesity recruit macrophages promoting chronic inflammation and insulin resistance. Together with the genetic susceptibility (single nucleotide polymorphisms, SNP) and metabolic alterations at the molecular level, it has been highlighted that key modifiable risk factors, such as those related to lifestyle, contribute to the development of obesity. In this scenario, urgent therapeutic options are needed, including not only pharmacotherapy but also nutrients, bioactive compounds, and natural extracts to reverse the metabolic alterations associated with obesity. Herein, we first summarize the main targetable processes to tackle obesity, including activation of thermogenesis in brown adipose tissue (BAT) and in white adipose tissue (WAT-browning), and the promotion of energy expenditure and/or fatty acid oxidation (FAO) in muscles. Then, we perform a screening of 20 natural extracts (EFSA approved) to determine their potential in the activation of FAO and/or thermogenesis, as well as the increase in respiratory capacity. By means of innovative technologies, such as the study of their effects on cell bioenergetics (Seahorse bioanalyzer), we end up with the selection of four extracts with potential application to ameliorate the deleterious effects of obesity and the chronic associated inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina Reguero
- Molecular Oncology Group, Precision Nutrition and Health, IMDEA Food Institute, CEI UAM + CSIC, Ctra. de Cantoblanco 8, 28049 Madrid, Spain;
- NATAC BIOTECH, Electronica 7, 28923 Madrid, Spain;
| | - Marta Gómez de Cedrón
- Molecular Oncology Group, Precision Nutrition and Health, IMDEA Food Institute, CEI UAM + CSIC, Ctra. de Cantoblanco 8, 28049 Madrid, Spain;
- Correspondence: (M.G.d.C.); (A.R.d.M.)
| | - Guillermo Reglero
- Production and Characterization of Novel Foods Department, Institute of Food Science Research CIAL, CEI UAM + CSIC, 28049 Madrid, Spain;
| | | | - Ana Ramírez de Molina
- Molecular Oncology Group, Precision Nutrition and Health, IMDEA Food Institute, CEI UAM + CSIC, Ctra. de Cantoblanco 8, 28049 Madrid, Spain;
- Correspondence: (M.G.d.C.); (A.R.d.M.)
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8
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Salazar J, Cano C, Pérez JL, Castro A, Díaz MP, Garrido B, Carrasquero R, Chacín M, Velasco M, D Marco L, Rojas-Quintero J, Bermúdez V. Role of Dietary Polyphenols in Adipose Tissue Browning: A Narrative Review. Curr Pharm Des 2021; 26:4444-4460. [PMID: 32611294 DOI: 10.2174/1381612826666200701211422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2020] [Accepted: 05/20/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Lifestyle modifications such as energy restriction and increased physical activity are highly effective in the management of obesity. However, adherence to these therapeutic approaches is poor. On the other hand, synthetic drugs used for obesity control are plagued by adverse effects. Despite these failures, adipose tissue is still an attractive therapeutic target for novel molecules, and thus, the characterisation of new and safer anti-obesity drugs is of significant interest. For this reason, in recent years, phenolic constituents of diverse plants have drawn much attention due to their health-promoting properties, opening new research lines related to brown adipose tissue activation and white adipose tissue (WAT) browning. The goal is to increase energy expenditure levels through thermogenic activity activation by multiple factors, like polyphenols. The suggested mechanisms by which polyphenols can modulate thermogenesis include Nor-epinephrine/Catechol-O-Methyl-Transferase (NE/COMT) inhibition, PPARγ co-activator alpha (PGC-1α)-dependent pathways activation, and mitochondrial biogenesis, among others. Although polyphenols such as quercetin, catechins, chrysin, luteolin, curcumin, resveratrol, gallic acid, and lignans have shown a positive effect on Non-Shivering Thermogenesis and WAT browning, most of them have only been active in murine models or in vitro systems, and their reproducibility in humans has to be proved. Probably in the future, an approach that includes these compounds as part of the nutritional regimen in conjunction with physical exercise, pharmacological and surgical therapy, would allow modulating a pathophysiological mechanism that is still elusive.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Salazar
- Endocrine and Metabolic Diseases Research Center. School of Medicine, University of Zulia, Maracaibo, Venezuela
| | - Clímaco Cano
- Endocrine and Metabolic Diseases Research Center. School of Medicine, University of Zulia, Maracaibo, Venezuela
| | - José L Pérez
- Endocrine and Metabolic Diseases Research Center. School of Medicine, University of Zulia, Maracaibo, Venezuela
| | - Ana Castro
- Endocrine and Metabolic Diseases Research Center. School of Medicine, University of Zulia, Maracaibo, Venezuela
| | - María P Díaz
- Endocrine and Metabolic Diseases Research Center. School of Medicine, University of Zulia, Maracaibo, Venezuela
| | - Bermary Garrido
- Endocrine and Metabolic Diseases Research Center. School of Medicine, University of Zulia, Maracaibo, Venezuela
| | - Rubén Carrasquero
- Endocrine and Metabolic Diseases Research Center. School of Medicine, University of Zulia, Maracaibo, Venezuela
| | - Maricarmen Chacín
- Universidad Simón Bolívar, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Barranquilla, Colombia
| | - Manuel Velasco
- Universidad Central de Venezuela, Escuela de Medicina José María Vargas, Caracas, Venezuela
| | - Luis D Marco
- Hospital Clínico Universitario, INCLIVA, Nephrology department, Valencia, Espana
| | - Joselyn Rojas-Quintero
- Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine Department, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Valmore Bermúdez
- Universidad Simón Bolívar, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Barranquilla, Colombia
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Reguero M, Gómez de Cedrón M, Wagner S, Reglero G, Quintela JC, Ramírez de Molina A. Precision Nutrition to Activate Thermogenesis as a Complementary Approach to Target Obesity and Associated-Metabolic-Disorders. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13040866. [PMID: 33670730 PMCID: PMC7922953 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13040866] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2020] [Revised: 02/15/2021] [Accepted: 02/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Regarding the pandemic of obesity and chronic diseases associated to metabolic alterations that occur nowadays worldwide, here, we review the most recent studies related to bioactive compounds and diet derived ingredients with potential effects to augment the systemic energy expenditure. We specifically focus in two processes: the activation of thermogenesis in adipose tissue and the enhancement of the mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation capacity in muscles. This may provide relevant information to develop diets and supplements to conduct nutritional intervention studies with the objective to ameliorate the metabolic and chronic inflammation in the course of obesity and related disorders. Abstract Obesity is associated to increased incidence and poorer prognosis in multiple cancers, contributing to up to 20% of cancer related deaths. These associations are mainly driven by metabolic and inflammatory changes in the adipose tissue during obesity, which disrupt the physiologic metabolic homeostasis. The association between obesity and hypercholesterolemia, hypertension, cardiovascular disease (CVD) and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is well known. Importantly, the retrospective analysis of more than 1000 epidemiological studies have also shown the positive correlation between the excess of fatness with the risk of cancer. In addition, more important than weight, it is the dysfunctional adipose tissue the main driver of insulin resistance, metabolic syndrome and all cause of mortality and cancer deaths, which also explains why normal weight individuals may behave as “metabolically unhealthy obese” individuals. Adipocytes also have direct effects on tumor cells through paracrine signaling. Downregulation of adiponectin and upregulation of leptin in serum correlate with markers of chronic inflammation, and crown like structures (CLS) associated to the adipose tissue disfunction. Nevertheless, obesity is a preventable risk factor in cancer. Lifestyle interventions might contribute to reduce the adverse effects of obesity. Thus, Mediterranean diet interventional studies have been shown to reduce to circulation inflammatory factors, insulin sensitivity and cardiovascular function, with durable responses of up to 2 years in obese patients. Mediterranean diet supplemented with extra-virgin olive oil reduced the incidence of breast cancer compared with a control diet. Physical activity is another important lifestyle factor which may also contribute to reduced systemic biomarkers of metabolic syndrome associated to obesity. In this scenario, precision nutrition may provide complementary approaches to target the metabolic inflammation associated to “unhealthy obesity”. Herein, we first describe the different types of adipose tissue -thermogenic active brown adipose tissue (BAT) versus the energy storing white adipose tissue (WAT). We then move on precision nutrition based strategies, by mean of natural extracts derived from plants and/or diet derived ingredients, which may be useful to normalize the metabolic inflammation associated to “unhealthy obesity”. More specifically, we focus on two axis: (1) the activation of thermogenesis in BAT and browning of WAT; (2) and the potential of augmenting the oxidative capacity of muscles to dissipate energy. These strategies may be particularly relevant as complementary approaches to alleviate obesity associated effects on chronic inflammation, immunosuppression, angiogenesis and chemotherapy resistance in cancer. Finally, we summarize main studies where plant derived extracts, mainly, polyphenols and flavonoids, have been applied to increase the energy expenditure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina Reguero
- Molecular Oncology Group, Precision Nutrition and Health, IMDEA Food Institute, CEI UAM + CSIC, Ctra. de Cantoblanco 8, 28049 Madrid, Spain; (M.R.); (S.W.)
- NATAC BIOTECH, Electronica 7, Alcorcón, 28923 Madrid, Spain;
| | - Marta Gómez de Cedrón
- Molecular Oncology Group, Precision Nutrition and Health, IMDEA Food Institute, CEI UAM + CSIC, Ctra. de Cantoblanco 8, 28049 Madrid, Spain; (M.R.); (S.W.)
- Correspondence: (M.G.d.C.); (A.R.d.M.)
| | - Sonia Wagner
- Molecular Oncology Group, Precision Nutrition and Health, IMDEA Food Institute, CEI UAM + CSIC, Ctra. de Cantoblanco 8, 28049 Madrid, Spain; (M.R.); (S.W.)
- Medicinal Gardens SL, Marqués de Urquijo 47, 28008 Madrid, Spain
| | - Guillermo Reglero
- Production and Characterization of Novel Foods Department, Institute of Food Science Research CIAL, CEI UAM + CSIC, 28049 Madrid, Spain;
| | | | - Ana Ramírez de Molina
- Molecular Oncology Group, Precision Nutrition and Health, IMDEA Food Institute, CEI UAM + CSIC, Ctra. de Cantoblanco 8, 28049 Madrid, Spain; (M.R.); (S.W.)
- Correspondence: (M.G.d.C.); (A.R.d.M.)
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10
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Li H, Wang C, Li L, Li L. Skeletal muscle non-shivering thermogenesis as an attractive strategy to combat obesity. Life Sci 2021; 269:119024. [PMID: 33450257 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2021.119024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2020] [Revised: 01/04/2021] [Accepted: 01/05/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Obesity is a chronic disease derived from disequilibrium between energy intake and energy expenditure and evolving as a challenging epidemiological disease in the 21st century. It is urgently necessary to solve this issue by searching for effective strategies and safe drugs. Skeletal muscle could be a potential therapeutic target for the prevention and treatment of obesity and its associated complications due to non-shivering thermogenesis (NST) function. Skeletal muscle NST is based dominantly on futile sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ ATPase (SERCA) pump cycling that leads to a rise in cytosolic Ca2+, increased adenosine triphosphate (ATP) hydrolysis and heat production. This review will highlight the mechanisms of skeletal muscle NST, including SLN mediated SERCA pump futile cycling, SR-mitochondrial crosstalk and increased mitochondrial biogenesis, and thermogenesis induced by uncoupling proteins 3 (UCP3). We then summarize natural products targeting the pathogenesis of obesity via skeletal muscle NST, offering new insights into pharmacotherapy and potential drug candidates to combat obesity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanbing Li
- Institute of Pharmacology, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, PR China; Section of Endocrinology, School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven 06520, USA.
| | - Can Wang
- Institute of Pharmacology, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, PR China
| | - Linghuan Li
- Institute of Pharmacology, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, PR China
| | - Lingqiao Li
- Zhejiang Starry Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Taizhou 317306, PR China
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11
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Zheng Y, Wu W, Hu G, Qiu L, Chen J. Transcriptome Analysis of Juvenile Tilapia ( Oreochromis niloticus) Blood, Fed With Different Concentrations of Resveratrol. Front Physiol 2020; 11:600730. [PMID: 33362577 PMCID: PMC7755862 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2020.600730] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2020] [Accepted: 10/20/2020] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Oreochromis niloticus (genetically improved farmed tilapia, GIFT) often bites the root of Polygonum cuspidatum when it is used as a floating bed, and resveratrol (RES) is mainly accumulated in the root of P. cuspidatum. Blood acts as a pipeline for the fish immune system. Generating blood transcriptomic resources is crucial for understanding molecular mechanisms underlying blood immune responses. In this study, we determined the effects of RES administration on blood transcriptomic response in GIFT. With increasing RES concentration, 133 (0.025 vs. 0.05 g/kg RES), 155 (0.025 vs. 0.1 g/kg RES), and 123 (0.05 vs. 0.1 g/kg RES) genes were detected as significant differentially expressed genes (DEGs). Three and ninety-five shared significant DEGs were found to be enriched among the three (except 0.1 g/kg RES) and four groups (0, 0.025, 0.05, and 0.1 g/kg RES), respectively. To determine the relationship between mitochondrial regulation and RES supplementation, the results of RNA-Seq were analyzed and nine mitochondria-related genes (ATP synthase or mitochondrial-function-related genes) were verified. The results revealed the same expression pattern: cytochrome c isoform X2 (cox2), katanin p60 ATPase-containing subunit A1 isoform X1 (katna1), plasma membrane calcium-transporting ATPase 1-like (atp2b1) and GTP-binding protein A-like (gtpbpal) showed the highest expression in the 0.1 g/kg RES group, while NADH dehydrogenase [ubiquinone] iron-sulfur protein 2 mitochondrial (nad7), ATP synthase subunit beta, mitochondrial (atpb), ATP synthase subunit alpha, mitochondrial-like (atpal), ATP synthase subunit alpha, mitochondrial (atpa) and ATP-dependent Clp protease proteolytic subunit, mitochondrial (clpp) revealed a dose-dependent expression following RES supplementation. Blood Ca2+-ATPase activity, and malondialdehyde, glutathione, and ATP content were significantly increased in the 0.05 (except Ca2+-ATPase activity), 0.1 g/kg RES group when compared with the controls. Eighty-nine shared DGEs were mainly enriched in antigen processing and presentation, cell adhesion molecules and phagosome pathways, based on the comparison between previous reported hepatic and the present blood transcriptome. Our study demonstrated that RES supplementation might improve the resistance to metabolism dysfunction via mitochondrial energy synthesis and/or the respiratory chain (e.g., ATPase).
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Affiliation(s)
- Yao Zheng
- Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Freshwater Fisheries Research Center, Wuxi, China.,Fishery Eco-Environment Monitoring Center of Lower Reaches of Yangtze River, Ministry of Agriculture, Wuxi, China.,Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Aquatic Products on Environmental Factors (Wuxi), Ministry of Agriculture, Wuxi, China
| | - Wei Wu
- Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Freshwater Fisheries Research Center, Wuxi, China.,Fishery Eco-Environment Monitoring Center of Lower Reaches of Yangtze River, Ministry of Agriculture, Wuxi, China.,Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Aquatic Products on Environmental Factors (Wuxi), Ministry of Agriculture, Wuxi, China
| | - Gengdong Hu
- Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Freshwater Fisheries Research Center, Wuxi, China.,Fishery Eco-Environment Monitoring Center of Lower Reaches of Yangtze River, Ministry of Agriculture, Wuxi, China.,Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Aquatic Products on Environmental Factors (Wuxi), Ministry of Agriculture, Wuxi, China
| | - Liping Qiu
- Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Freshwater Fisheries Research Center, Wuxi, China.,Fishery Eco-Environment Monitoring Center of Lower Reaches of Yangtze River, Ministry of Agriculture, Wuxi, China.,Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Aquatic Products on Environmental Factors (Wuxi), Ministry of Agriculture, Wuxi, China
| | - Jiazhang Chen
- Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Freshwater Fisheries Research Center, Wuxi, China.,Fishery Eco-Environment Monitoring Center of Lower Reaches of Yangtze River, Ministry of Agriculture, Wuxi, China.,Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Aquatic Products on Environmental Factors (Wuxi), Ministry of Agriculture, Wuxi, China.,Key Laboratory of Control of Quality and Safety for Aquatic Products, Ministry of Agriculture, Wuxi, China
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12
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Motlagh Scholle L, Schieffers H, Al-Robaiy S, Thaele A, Dehghani F, Lehmann Urban D, Zierz S. The Effect of Resveratrol on Mitochondrial Function in Myoblasts of Patients with the Common m.3243A>G Mutation. Biomolecules 2020; 10:biom10081103. [PMID: 32722320 PMCID: PMC7464358 DOI: 10.3390/biom10081103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2020] [Revised: 07/14/2020] [Accepted: 07/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Mitochondrial function is essential for ATP-supply, especially in response to different cellular stressors. Increased mitochondrial biogenesis resulting from caloric restriction (CR) has been reported. Resveratrol (RSV) is believed to mimic the physiological effects of CR mainly via a sirtuin (SIRT) 1-dependent pathway. The effect of RSV on the physiological function of mitochondrial respiratory complexes was evaluated using a Seahorse XF96. Myoblasts of five patients harboring the m.3243A>G mutation and five controls were analyzed. The relative expression of several genes involved in mitochondrial biogenesis was evaluated for a better understanding of the coherent mechanisms. Additionally, media-dependent effects of nutritional compounds and hormonal restrictions (R) on myoblasts from patients and controls in the presence or absence of RSV were investigated. Culturing of myoblasts under these conditions led to an upregulation of almost all the investigated genes compared to normal nutrition. Under normal conditions, there was no positive effect of RSV on mitochondrial respiration in patients and controls. However, under restricted conditions, the respiratory factors measured by Seahorse were improved in the presence of RSV. Further studies are necessary to clarify the involved mechanisms and elucidate the controversial effects of resveratrol on SIRT1 and SIRT3 expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leila Motlagh Scholle
- Department of Neurology, Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, 06120 Halle, Germany; (H.S.); (A.T.); (S.Z.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +49-345-557-3628
| | - Helena Schieffers
- Department of Neurology, Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, 06120 Halle, Germany; (H.S.); (A.T.); (S.Z.)
| | - Samiya Al-Robaiy
- Center for Basic Medical Research, Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, 06120 Halle, Germany;
| | - Annemarie Thaele
- Department of Neurology, Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, 06120 Halle, Germany; (H.S.); (A.T.); (S.Z.)
| | - Faramarz Dehghani
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, 06108 Halle, Germany;
| | | | - Stephan Zierz
- Department of Neurology, Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, 06120 Halle, Germany; (H.S.); (A.T.); (S.Z.)
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13
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Effects of resveratrol and its derivative pterostilbene on brown adipose tissue thermogenic activation and on white adipose tissue browning process. J Physiol Biochem 2020; 76:269-278. [PMID: 32170654 DOI: 10.1007/s13105-020-00735-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2019] [Accepted: 02/19/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The main function of brown adipose tissue (BAT) is thermogenesis, a process mediated by uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1), which is located in the inner mitochondrial membrane and acts uncoupling oxidative phosphorylation from ATP production, thereby dissipating energy as heat. White adipose tissue can also express UCP1 positive cells due to a process known as browning. This phenomenon could also increase the thermogenic effect in the classical brown adipose depots. BAT thermogenesis depends, among other factors on both, nutritional conditions and food availability. Indeed, some studies have found that BAT recruitment and function are enhanced by some food components. The present study focuses on the effects of resveratrol and pterostilbene, two phenolic compounds belonging to the stilbene group, on BAT thermogenic activation and white adipose tissue browning process. The reported studies, carried out in cell cultures and animal models, show that both resveratrol and pterostilbene induce thermogenic capacity in interscapular BAT by increasing mitochondriogenesis, as well as enhancing fatty acid oxidation and glucose disposal. In addition, resveratrol seems to promote browning by activating peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR), while the lack of changes in mitochondrial biogenesis suggests that probably the browning process occurs by direct resveratrol-mediated upregulation of ucp1 mRNA expression.
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14
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Han X, Zhang Y, Guo J, You Y, Zhan J, Huang W. Chlorogenic Acid Stimulates the Thermogenesis of Brown Adipocytes by Promoting the Uptake of Glucose and the Function of Mitochondria. J Food Sci 2019; 84:3815-3824. [PMID: 31750946 DOI: 10.1111/1750-3841.14838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2019] [Revised: 09/02/2019] [Accepted: 09/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Brown adipose tissue (BAT) prevents obesity and related diseases by uncoupling oxidative phosphorylation with adenosine triphosphate. Previous studies have demonstrated that polyphenols can promote the thermogenesis of BAT in mice. Chlorogenic acid (CGA) is a common phenolic acid found in fruits and vegetables, as well as traditional Chinese medicine, which is responsible for a variety of physiological activities. However, it is still unclear whether CGA has positive effects on the thermogenesis of BAT. In this study, CGA enhances the thermogenesis and proton leak of brown adipocytes, however, no changes are evident regarding the differentiation of C3 H10 T1/2 into brown adipocytes. Surprisingly, CGA promotes the uptake of glucose by upregulating the glucose transporter 2 and phosphofructokinase. Moreover, CGA increases the number and the function of mitochondrial. Taken together, CGA stimulates thermogenesis of brown adipocytes by promoting the uptake of glucose and the function of mitochondria. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Chlorogenic acid (CGA) is widely found in fruits, vegetables, and traditional Chinese medicines, which has been considered to have antibacterial and anti-inflammatory function. However, whether it has the function of resisting obesity and promoting thermogenesis is still unclear. In this study, brown adipocyte was used to explore the function and mechanism of CGA on thermogenesis. It provides new ideas for the utilization of foods rich in CGA and traditional Chinese medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xue Han
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Viticulture and Enology, College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering, China Agricultural Univ., Tsinghua East Road 17, Haidian District, Beijing, 100083, China.,Xinghua Industrial Research Centre for Food Science and Human Health, China Agricultural Univ., Xinghua, 225700, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yuxin Zhang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Viticulture and Enology, College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering, China Agricultural Univ., Tsinghua East Road 17, Haidian District, Beijing, 100083, China.,Xinghua Industrial Research Centre for Food Science and Human Health, China Agricultural Univ., Xinghua, 225700, Jiangsu, China
| | - Jielong Guo
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Viticulture and Enology, College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering, China Agricultural Univ., Tsinghua East Road 17, Haidian District, Beijing, 100083, China.,Xinghua Industrial Research Centre for Food Science and Human Health, China Agricultural Univ., Xinghua, 225700, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yilin You
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Viticulture and Enology, College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering, China Agricultural Univ., Tsinghua East Road 17, Haidian District, Beijing, 100083, China.,Xinghua Industrial Research Centre for Food Science and Human Health, China Agricultural Univ., Xinghua, 225700, Jiangsu, China
| | - Jicheng Zhan
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Viticulture and Enology, College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering, China Agricultural Univ., Tsinghua East Road 17, Haidian District, Beijing, 100083, China.,Xinghua Industrial Research Centre for Food Science and Human Health, China Agricultural Univ., Xinghua, 225700, Jiangsu, China
| | - Weidong Huang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Viticulture and Enology, College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering, China Agricultural Univ., Tsinghua East Road 17, Haidian District, Beijing, 100083, China.,Xinghua Industrial Research Centre for Food Science and Human Health, China Agricultural Univ., Xinghua, 225700, Jiangsu, China
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15
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Zheng Y, Hu G, Wu W, Zhao Z, Meng S, Fan L, Song C, Qiu L, Chen J. Transcriptome analysis of juvenile genetically improved farmed tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) livers by dietary resveratrol supplementation. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 2019; 223:1-8. [PMID: 31028934 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpc.2019.04.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2019] [Revised: 04/18/2019] [Accepted: 04/19/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Here we used RNA-Seq to explore the transcriptomic response and specific involvement of hepatic mRNA of juvenile Oreochromis niloticus (GIFT) as a result of dietary resveratrol supplementation (0.05 g/kg RES). More than 24,513,018 clean reads were reference genome guided assembly into 23,417 unigenes. 12,596 unigenes (29.64%) were annotated to GO database. There were 5, 179 and 1526 genes significantly differentially expressed genes at 15, 30 and 45 d respectively, and 8 KEGG pathways were enriched associated with this immune response. Hyperemia and compressed hepatic sinusoid, fibrosis of liver cell and abnormal hepatic epidermal cell revealed by H&E and SEM analysis respectively. Genes related with cytokine production (il12rb2, scfr), immune system (ig8l, hlfl, cd226, prf1l), autophagy regulation (atg4b), foxo signaling (ccnb2), steroid hormone biosynthesis (cyp3a40), fatty acid metabolism (scd1), metabolism (cacna1b) have been significantly decreased, while genes associated with such pathways above (leap-2, prdx4, mb, homer1, mif, sat1, cytbc1_8) and the pathway of protein processing in endoplasmic reticulum (cne1, tram1) have been significantly increased. These findings suggested RES activated some immune and biological process-related genes to enhance GIFT's innate immunity. It also suggested high concentration addition or long-time administration may bring negative effect in tilapia liver.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yao Zheng
- Freshwater Fisheries Research Center, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences/Fishery Eco-Evironment Monitoring Center of Lower Reaches of Yangtze River, Ministry of Agriculture/Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Aquatic Products on Environmental Factors(Wuxi), Ministry of Agriculture, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214081, PR China
| | - Gengdong Hu
- Freshwater Fisheries Research Center, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences/Fishery Eco-Evironment Monitoring Center of Lower Reaches of Yangtze River, Ministry of Agriculture/Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Aquatic Products on Environmental Factors(Wuxi), Ministry of Agriculture, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214081, PR China
| | - Wei Wu
- Freshwater Fisheries Research Center, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences/Fishery Eco-Evironment Monitoring Center of Lower Reaches of Yangtze River, Ministry of Agriculture/Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Aquatic Products on Environmental Factors(Wuxi), Ministry of Agriculture, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214081, PR China
| | - Zhixiang Zhao
- Wuxi Fishery College, Nanjing Agricultural University, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214081, PR China
| | - Shunlong Meng
- Freshwater Fisheries Research Center, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences/Fishery Eco-Evironment Monitoring Center of Lower Reaches of Yangtze River, Ministry of Agriculture/Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Aquatic Products on Environmental Factors(Wuxi), Ministry of Agriculture, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214081, PR China
| | - Limin Fan
- Freshwater Fisheries Research Center, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences/Fishery Eco-Evironment Monitoring Center of Lower Reaches of Yangtze River, Ministry of Agriculture/Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Aquatic Products on Environmental Factors(Wuxi), Ministry of Agriculture, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214081, PR China
| | - Chao Song
- Freshwater Fisheries Research Center, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences/Fishery Eco-Evironment Monitoring Center of Lower Reaches of Yangtze River, Ministry of Agriculture/Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Aquatic Products on Environmental Factors(Wuxi), Ministry of Agriculture, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214081, PR China
| | - Liping Qiu
- Freshwater Fisheries Research Center, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences/Fishery Eco-Evironment Monitoring Center of Lower Reaches of Yangtze River, Ministry of Agriculture/Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Aquatic Products on Environmental Factors(Wuxi), Ministry of Agriculture, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214081, PR China
| | - Jiazhang Chen
- Freshwater Fisheries Research Center, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences/Fishery Eco-Evironment Monitoring Center of Lower Reaches of Yangtze River, Ministry of Agriculture/Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Aquatic Products on Environmental Factors(Wuxi), Ministry of Agriculture, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214081, PR China; Wuxi Fishery College, Nanjing Agricultural University, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214081, PR China; Key Laboratory of Control of Quality and Safety for Aquatic Products, Ministry of Agriculture, PR China.
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