Development and Characterization of Inkjet Printed Edible Films for Buccal Delivery of B-Complex Vitamins

Inkjet Printing of Pharmaceuticals

Inkjet printing (IJP) is an additive manufacturing process that selectively deposits ink materials, layer-by-layer, to create 3D objects or 2D patterns with precise control over their structure and composition. This technology has emerged as an attractive and versatile approach to address the ever-evolving demands of personalized medicine in the healthcare industry. Although originally developed for nonhealthcare applications, IJP harnesses the potential of pharma-inks, which are meticulously formulated inks containing drugs and pharmaceutical excipients. Delving into the formulation and components of pharma-inks, the key to precise and adaptable material deposition enabled by IJP is unraveled. The review extends its focus to substrate materials, including paper, films, foams, lenses, and 3D-printed materials, showcasing their diverse advantages, while exploring a wide spectrum of therapeutic applications. Additionally, the potential benefits of hardware and software improvements, along with artificial intelligence integration, are discussed to enhance IJP's precision and efficiency. Embracing these advancements, IJP holds immense potential to reshape traditional medicine manufacturing processes, ushering in an era of medical precision. However, further exploration and optimization are needed to fully utilize IJP's healthcare capabilities. As researchers push the boundaries of IJP, the vision of patient-specific treatment is on the horizon of becoming a tangible reality.

Current Applications of Liposomes for the Delivery of Vitamins: A Systematic Review

Liposomes have been used for several decades for the encapsulation of drugs and bioactives in cosmetics and cosmeceuticals. On the other hand, the use of these phospholipid vesicles in food applications is more recent and is increasing significantly in the last ten years. Although in different stages of technological maturity-in the case of cosmetics, many products are on the market-processes to obtain liposomes suitable for the encapsulation and delivery of bioactives are highly expensive, especially those aiming at scaling up. Among the bioactives proposed for cosmetics and food applications, vitamins are the most frequently used. Despite the differences between the administration routes (oral for food and mainly dermal for cosmetics), some challenges are very similar (e.g., stability, bioactive load, average size, increase in drug bioaccessibility and bioavailability). In the present work, a systematic review of the technological advancements in the nanoencapsulation of vitamins using liposomes and related processes was performed; challenges and future perspectives were also discussed in order to underline the advantages of these drug-loaded biocompatible nanocarriers for cosmetics and food applications.

Recent Advances in the Applications of Additive Manufacturing (3D Printing) in Drug Delivery: A Comprehensive Review

There has been a tremendous increase in the investigations of three-dimensional (3D) printing for biomedical and pharmaceutical applications, and drug delivery in particular, ever since the US FDA approved the first 3D printed medicine, SPRITAM® (levetiracetam) in 2015. Three-dimensional printing, also known as additive manufacturing, involves various manufacturing techniques like fused-deposition modeling, 3D inkjet, stereolithography, direct powder extrusion, and selective laser sintering, among other 3D printing techniques, which are based on the digitally controlled layer-by-layer deposition of materials to form various geometries of printlets. In contrast to conventional manufacturing methods, 3D printing technologies provide the unique and important opportunity for the fabrication of personalized dosage forms, which is an important aspect in addressing diverse patient medical needs. There is however the need to speed up the use of 3D printing in the biopharmaceutical industry and clinical settings, and this can be made possible through the integration of modern technologies like artificial intelligence, machine learning, and Internet of Things, into additive manufacturing. This will lead to less human involvement and expertise, independent, streamlined, and intelligent production of personalized medicines. Four-dimensional (4D) printing is another important additive manufacturing technique similar to 3D printing, but adds a 4th dimension defined as time, to the printing. This paper aims to give a detailed review of the applications and principles of operation of various 3D printing technologies in drug delivery, and the materials used in 3D printing, and highlight the challenges and opportunities of additive manufacturing, while introducing the concept of 4D printing and its pharmaceutical applications.

Continuing progress in the field of two-dimensional correlation spectroscopy (2D-COS): Part III. Versatile applications

In this review, the comprehensive summary of two-dimensional correlation spectroscopy (2D-COS) for the last two years is covered. The remarkable applications of 2D-COS in diverse fields using many types of probes and perturbations for the last two years are highlighted. IR spectroscopy is still the most popular probe in 2D-COS during the last two years. Applications in fluorescence and Raman spectroscopy are also very popularly used. In the external perturbations applied in 2D-COS, variations in concentration, pH, and relative compositions are dramatically increased during the last two years. Temperature is still the most used effect, but it is slightly decreased compared to two years ago. 2D-COS has been applied to diverse systems, such as environments, natural products, polymers, food, proteins and peptides, solutions, mixtures, nano materials, pharmaceuticals, and others. Especially, biological and environmental applications have significantly emerged. This survey review paper shows that 2D-COS is an actively evolving and expanding field.

Transdermal delivery via medical device technologies

INTRODUCTION

Despite their effectiveness and indispensability, many drugs are poorly solvated in aqueous solutions. Over recent decades, the need for targeted drug delivery has led to the development of pharmaceutical formulations with enhanced lipid solubility to improve their delivery properties. Therefore, a dependable approach for administering lipid-soluble drugs needs to be developed.

AREAS COVERED

The advent of 3D printing or additive manufacturing (AM) has revolutionized the development of medical devices, which can effectively enable the delivery of lipophilic drugs to the targeted tissues. This review focuses on the use of microneedles and iontophoresis for transdermal drug delivery. Microneedle arrays, inkjet printing, and fused deposition modeling have emerged as valuable approaches for delivering several classes of drugs. In addition, iontophoresis has been successfully employed for the effective delivery of macromolecular drugs.

EXPERT OPINION

Microneedle arrays, inkjet printing, and fused deposition are potentially useful for many drug delivery applications; however, the clinical and commercial adoption rates of these technologies are relatively low. Additional efforts is needed to enable the pharmaceutical community to fully realize the benefits of these technologies.

Physical and textural properties of functional edible protein films from soybean using an innovative 3D printing technology

Increasing market demand for sustainable, environmentally friendly edible film materials has called for the development of new customizable production methods utilizing emerging technologies such as 3D printing. We hereby report a new method to generate functional edible soy protein isolate films prepared from three types of soybeans (AR-R11-7999, MO-S17-17168, and MO-S17-19874R) using an innovative 3D printing technology. The protein contents in AR-R11-7999, MO-S17-17168, and MO-S17-19874R soybean meals and their corresponding protein isolates were 40.0, 39.1, and 39.9; and 84.5, 84.7, and 87.3 % (w/w, dry basis), respectively. Response surface methodology was used to maximize the tensile and puncture strength and minimize the thickness of the 3D-printed edible films using protein concentration, plasticizer concentration (glycerol), and drying time as the independent variables. The optimized film production conditions were determined as soy protein concentration: 8.91%, plasticizer concentration: 3.00%, and drying time: 3.98 h with a desirability value of 0.7428. The optimized conditions were then successfully verified with the original soybean lot with a nonsignificant difference in physical properties. At the optimized conditions, the 3D-printed edible films using three soybean lots revealed: 0.108-0.114 mm thickness; 14.79-16.07 MPa tensile strength; 6.97-8.20 N puncture strength; 90.81-91.53, -1.89 to -1.31, and 14.85-17.25 were color parameters L*, a*, and b*, respectively; 1.22-1.36 g/cm³ density; and 104.4-105.7% elongation at break ratio (%). PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Edible soy protein films produced by an extrusion-based 3D printing approach are highly customizable and precise, and could be produced at an industrial scale. This newly produced environment-friendly soy protein-based edible film can serve as an alternate packaging to synthetic plastics and reduce the environmental landfill problem while adding value to soybean produced in the mid-south United States.

Methods to Produce Nicotinic Acid with Potential Industrial Applications

Nicotinic acid is a naturally occurring pyridine carboxylic acid, contained in vitamin PP, an essential nutrient for humans and animals, and used as an antipelagic agent. Nicotinic acid can be made from tryptophan by plants and animals but is usually not completely bioavailable. Industrially, nicotinic acid is produced mainly by oxidation of 5-ethyl-2-methylpyridine with nitric acid. One of the by-products of the process is nitrous oxide, a gas that is difficult to recycle and manage, with a greenhouse effect 300 times stronger than CO₂. A new technology for the industrial production of nicotinic acid is undoubtedly necessary to meet the needs of green chemistry and not burden the environment. We carried out a literature review on ecological methods to produce nicotinic acid from commercially available raw materials such as 3-methylpyridine and 5-ethyl-2-methylpyridine, especially focusing on those methods with potential industrial applications.

Mucoadhesive Delivery System: A Smart Way to Improve Bioavailability of Nutraceuticals

The conventional oral administration of many nutraceuticals exhibits poor oral bioavailability due to the harsh gastric conditions and first-pass metabolism. Oral mucosa has been recognized as a potential site for the delivery of therapeutic compounds. The mucoadhesive formulation can adhere to the mucosal membrane through various interaction mechanisms and enhance the retention and permeability of bioactive compounds. Absorption of bioactive compounds from the mucosa can improve bioavailability, as this route bypasses the hepatic first-pass metabolism and transit through the gastrointestinal tract. The mucosal administration is convenient, simple to access, and reported for increasing the bioactive concentration in plasma. Many mucoadhesive polymers, emulsifiers, thickeners used for the pharmaceutical formulation are accepted in the food sector. Introducing mucoadhesive formulations specific to the nutraceutical sector will be a game-changer as we are still looking for different ways to improve the bioavailability of many bioactive compounds. This article describes the overview of buccal mucosa, the concept of mucoadhesion and related theories, and different techniques of mucoadhesive formulations. Finally, the classification of mucoadhesive polymers and the mucoadhesive systems designed for the effective delivery of bioactive compounds are presented.

Pressure-assisted microsyringe 3D printing of oral films based on pullulan and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose

Oral films (OFs) continue to attract attention as drug delivery systems, particularly for pedatric and geriatric needs. However, immiscibility between different polymers limits the full potential of OFs from being explored. One example is pullulan (PUL), a novel biopolymer which often has to be blended with other polymers to reduce cost and alter its mechanical properties. In this study, the state-of-the-art in fabrication techniques, three-dimensional (3D) printing was used to produce hybrid film structures of PUL and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC), which were loaded with caffeine as a model drug. 3D printing was used to control the spatial deposition of films. HPMC was found to increase the mean mechanical properties of PUL films, where the tensile strength, elastic modulus and elongation break increased from 8.9 to 14.5 MPa, 1.17 to 1.56 GPa and from 1.48% to 1.77%, respectively. In addition, the spatial orientation of the hybrid films was also explored to determine which orientation could maximize the mechanical properties of the hybrid films. The results revealed that 3D printing could modify the mechanical properties of PUL whilst circumventing the issues associated with immiscibility.

3D Printing as a Promising Tool in Personalized Medicine

Personalized medicine has the potential to revolutionize the healthcare sector, its goal being to tailor medication to a particular individual by taking into consideration the physiology, drug response, and genetic profile of that individual. There are many technologies emerging to cause this paradigm shift from the conventional "one size fits all" to personalized medicine, the major one being three-dimensional (3D) printing. 3D printing involves the establishment of a three-dimensional object, in a layer upon layer manner using various computer software. 3D printing can be used to construct a wide variety of pharmaceutical dosage forms varying in shape, release profile, and drug combination. The major technological platforms of 3D printing researched on in the pharmaceutical sector include inkjet printing, binder jetting, fused filament fabrication, selective laser sintering, stereolithography, and pressure-assisted microsyringe. A possible future application of this technology could be in a clinical setting, where prescriptions could be dispensed based on individual needs. This manuscript points out the various 3D printing technologies and their applications in research for fabricating pharmaceutical products, along with their pros and cons. It also presents its potential in personalized medicine by individualizing the dose, release profiles, and incorporating multiple drugs in a polypill. An insight on how it tends to various populations is also provided. An approach of how it can be used in a clinical setting is also highlighted. Also, various challenges faced are pointed out, which must be overcome for the success of this technology in personalized medicine.

In Vitro and Ex Vivo Evaluation of Penetratin as a Non-invasive Permeation Enhancer in the Penetration of Salmon Calcitonin through TR146 Buccal Cells and Porcine Buccal Tissues

Buccal tissues are considered one of the potential alternative delivery route because of fast drug absorption and onset of action due to high vascularization and a non-keratinized epithelial membrane. In this study, the effect of Penetratin on the permeation of salmon calcitonin (sCT), a model macromolecular peptide drug, through TR146 buccal cells and porcine buccal tissues has been evaluated. To observe permeation profile of sCT, TR146 buccal cells were treated with Alexa 647 conjugated sCT (Alexa 647-sCT) with different concentrations of fluorescein isothiocyanate -labeled Penetratin (FITC-Penetratin) ranging from 0 to 40 μM, and analyzed using flow cytometry and confocal laser scanning microscopy. Intracellular penetration of FITC-Penetratin rapidly increased at low concentrations from 0 to 15 μM and it gradually increased at concentrations above 15 μM. Intracellular penetration of Alexa 647-sCT enhanced with the increase of FITC-Penetratin concentration. When TR146 cell layers and buccal tissues were co-treated with sCT and Penetratin as permeation enhancer, the flux of sCT increased as per Penetratin concentration. Compared to the control, 12.2 μM of Penetratin enhanced the flux of sCT in TR146 cell layers and buccal tissues by 5.5-fold and 93.7-fold, respectively. These results strongly suggest that Penetratin may successfully act as a non-invasive permeation enhancer for macromolecular peptide drug delivery through buccal routes.

Antibacterial Drug-Release Polydimethylsiloxane Coating for 3D-Printing Dental Polymer: Surface Alterations and Antimicrobial Effects

Polymers are the most commonly used material for three-dimensional (3D) printing in dentistry; however, the high porosity and water absorptiveness of the material adversely influence biofilm formation on the surface of the 3D-printed dental prostheses. This study evaluated the effects of a newly developed chlorhexidine (CHX)-loaded polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)-based coating material on the surface microstructure, surface wettability and antibacterial activity of 3D-printing dental polymer. First, mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSN) were used to encapsulate CHX, and the combination was added to PDMS to synthesize the antibacterial agent-releasing coating substance. Then, a thin coating film was formed on the 3D-printing polymer specimens using oxygen plasma and thermal treatment. The results show that using the coating substance significantly reduced the surface irregularity and increased the hydrophobicity of the specimens. Remarkably, the culture media containing coated specimens had a significantly lower number of bacterial colony formation units than the noncoated specimens, thereby indicating the effective antibacterial activity of the coating.