Graphene Oxide Functional Nanohybrids with Magnetic Nanoparticles for Improved Vectorization of Doxorubicin to Neuroblastoma Cells

Revolutionizing Cancer Care: Advances in Carbon-Based Materials for Diagnosis and Treatment

Cancer involves intricate pathological mechanisms marked by complexities such as cytotoxicity, drug resistance, stem cell proliferation, and inadequate specificity in current chemotherapy approaches. Cancer therapy has embraced diverse nanomaterials renowned for their unique magnetic, electrical, and optical properties to address these challenges. Despite the expanding corpus of knowledge in this area, there has been less advancement in approving nano drugs for use in clinical settings. Nanotechnology, and more especially the development of intelligent nanomaterials, has had a profound impact on cancer research and treatment in recent years. Due to their large surface area, nanoparticles can adeptly encapsulate diverse compounds. Furthermore, the modification of nanoparticles is achievable through a broad spectrum of bio-based substrates, including DNA, aptamers, RNA, and antibodies. This functionalization substantially enhances their theranostic capabilities. Nanomaterials originating from biological sources outperform their conventionally created counterparts, offering advantages such as reduced toxicity, lower manufacturing costs, and enhanced efficiency. This review uses carbon nanomaterials, including graphene-based materials, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) based nanomaterials, and carbon quantum dots (CQDs), to give a complete overview of various methods used in cancer theranostics. We also discussed their advantages and limitations in cancer diagnosis and treatment settings. Carbon nanomaterials might significantly improve cancer theranostics and pave the way for fresh tumor diagnosis and treatment approaches. More study is needed to determine whether using nano-carriers for targeted medicine delivery may increase material utilization. More insight is required to explore the correlation between heightened cytotoxicity and retention resulting from increased permeability.

The role of nanoparticles and nanomaterials in cancer diagnosis and treatment: a comprehensive review

Cancer's pathological processes are complex and present several challenges for current chemotherapy methods. These challenges include cytotoxicity, multidrug resistance, the proliferation of cancer stem cells, and a lack of specificity. To address these issues, researchers have turned to nanomaterials, which possess distinct optical, magnetic, and electrical properties due to their size range of 1-100 nm. Nanomaterials have been engineered to improve cancer treatment by mitigating cytotoxicity, enhancing specificity, increasing drug payload capacity, and improving drug bioavailability. Despite a growing corpus of research on this subject, there has been limited progress in permitting nanodrugs for medical use. The advent of nanotechnology, particularly advances in intelligent nanomaterials, has transformed the field of cancer diagnosis and therapy. Nanoparticles' large surface area allows them to successfully encapsulate a large number of molecules. Nanoparticles can be functionalized with various bio-based substrates like RNA, DNA, aptamers, and antibodies, enhancing their theranostic capabilities. Biologically derived nanomaterials offer economical, easily producible, and less toxic alternatives to conventionally manufactured ones. This review offers a comprehensive overview of cancer theranostics methodologies, focusing on intelligent nanomaterials such as metal, polymeric, and carbon-based nanoparticles. I have also critically discussed their benefits and challenges in cancer therapy and diagnostics. Utilizing intelligent nanomaterials holds promise for advancing cancer theranostics, and improving tumor detection and treatment. Further research should optimize nanocarriers for targeted drug delivery and explore enhanced permeability, cytotoxicity, and retention effects.

The Use of Crystalline Carbon-Based Nanomaterials (CBNs) in Various Biomedical Applications

This review study aims to present, in a condensed manner, the significance of the use of crystalline carbon-based nanomaterials in biomedical applications. Crystalline carbon-based nanomaterials, encompassing graphene, graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide, carbon nanotubes, and graphene quantum dots, have emerged as promising materials for the development of medical devices in various biomedical applications. These materials possess inorganic semiconducting attributes combined with organic π-π stacking features, allowing them to efficiently interact with biomolecules and present enhanced light responses. By harnessing these unique properties, carbon-based nanomaterials offer promising opportunities for future advancements in biomedicine. Recent studies have focused on the development of these nanomaterials for targeted drug delivery, cancer treatment, and biosensors. The conjugation and modification of carbon-based nanomaterials have led to significant advancements in a plethora of therapies and have addressed limitations in preclinical biomedical applications. Furthermore, the wide-ranging therapeutic advantages of carbon nanotubes have been thoroughly examined in the context of biomedical applications.

Curcumin-Sodium Alginate and Curcumin-Chitosan Conjugates as Drug Delivery Systems: An Interesting Rheological Behaviour

The conjugation of polyphenols is a valuable strategy with which to confer tailored properties to polymeric materials of biomedical interest. Within this investigation, we aim to explore the possibility to use this synthetic approach to increase the viscosity of conjugates, thus allowing the release of a loaded therapeutic to be better controlled over time than in neat polyphenols. Curcumin (CUR) was conjugated to sodium alginate (CA) and chitosan (CS) with functionalisation degrees of 9.2 (SA-CUR) and 15.4 (CS-CUR) mg g-1. Calorimetric analyses showed higher degrees of chain rigidity upon conjugation, with a shift of the degradation peaks to higher temperatures (from 239 to 245 °C and from 296 to 303 °C for SA-CUR and CS-CUR, respectively). Rheological analyses were used to prove the enhanced interconnection between the polymer chains in the conjugates, confirmed by the weak gel parameters, A and z. Moreover, the typical non-Newtonian behaviour of the high-molecular-weight polysaccharides was recorded, together with an enhancement of the activation energy, Ea, in CS-CUR vs. CS (opposite behaviour recorded for SA-CUR vs. SA). The evaluation of the delivery performance (of Doxorubicin as a model drug) showed sustained release profiles, opening opportunities for the development of controlled delivery systems.

Recent biomedical advancements in graphene oxide- and reduced graphene oxide-based nanocomposite nanocarriers

Recently, nanocarriers, including micelles, polymers, carbon-based materials, liposomes, and other substances, have been developed for efficient delivery of drugs, nucleotides, and biomolecules. This review focuses on graphene oxide (GO) and reduced graphene oxide (rGO) as active components in nanocarriers, because their chemical structures and easy functionalization can be valuable assets for in vitro and in vivo delivery. Herein, we describe the preparation, structure, and functionalization of GO and rGO. Additionally, their important properties to function as nanocarriers are presented, including their molecular interactions with various compounds, near-infrared light adsorption, and biocompatibility. Subsequently, their mechanisms and the most appealing examples of their delivery applications are summarized. Overall, GO- and rGO-based nanocomposites show great promise as multipurpose nanocarriers owing to their various potential applications in drug and gene delivery, phototherapy, bioimaging, biosensing, tissue engineering, and as antibacterial agents.

Physically stimulus-responsive nanoparticles for therapy and diagnosis

Nanoparticles offer numerous advantages in various fields of science, particularly in medicine. Over recent years, the use of nanoparticles in disease diagnosis and treatments has increased dramatically by the development of stimuli-responsive nano-systems, which can respond to internal or external stimuli. In the last 10 years, many preclinical studies were performed on physically triggered nano-systems to develop and optimize stable, precise, and selective therapeutic or diagnostic agents. In this regard, the systems must meet the requirements of efficacy, toxicity, pharmacokinetics, and safety before clinical investigation. Several undesired aspects need to be addressed to successfully translate these physical stimuli-responsive nano-systems, as biomaterials, into clinical practice. These have to be commonly taken into account when developing physically triggered systems; thus, also applicable for nano-systems based on nanomaterials. This review focuses on physically triggered nano-systems (PTNSs), with diagnostic or therapeutic and theranostic applications. Several types of physically triggered nano-systems based on polymeric micelles and hydrogels, mesoporous silica, and magnets are reviewed and discussed in various aspects.

Bioinspired soft nanovesicles for site-selective cancer imaging and targeted therapies

Cell-to-cell communication within the heterogeneous solid tumor environment plays a significant role in the uncontrolled metastasis of cancer. To inhibit the metastasis and growth of cancer cells, various chemically designed and biologically derived nanosized biomaterials have been applied for targeted cancer therapeutics applications. Over the years, bioinspired soft nanovesicles have gained tremendous attention for targeted cancer therapeutics due to their easy binding with tumor microenvironment, natural targeting ability, bio-responsive nature, better biocompatibility, high cargo capacity for multiple therapeutics agents, and long circulation time. These cell-derived nanovesicles guard their loaded cargo molecules from immune clearance and make them site-selective to cancer cells due to their natural binding and delivery abilities. Furthermore, bioinspired soft nanovesicles prevent cell-to-cell communication and secretion of cancer cell markers by delivering the therapeutics agents predominantly. Cell-derived vesicles, namely, exosomes, extracellular vesicles, and so forth have been recognized as versatile carriers for therapeutic biomolecules. However, low product yield, poor reproducibility, and uncontrolled particle size distribution have remained as major challenges of these soft nanovesicles. Furthermore, the surface biomarkers and molecular contents of these vesicles change with respect to the stage of disease and types. Here in this review, we have discussed numerous examples of bioinspired soft vesicles for targeted imaging and cancer therapeutic applications with their advantages and limitations. Importance of bioengineered soft nanovesicles for localized therapies with their clinical relevance has also been addressed in this article. Overall, cell-derived nanovesicles could be considered as clinically relevant platforms for cancer therapeutics. This article is categorized under: Biology-Inspired Nanomaterials > Nucleic Acid-Based Structures Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Oncologic Disease.

Magnetic Ordering in Ultrasmall Potassium Ferrite Nanoparticles Grown on Graphene Nanoflakes

Magnetic nanoparticles are central to the development of efficient hyperthermia treatments, magnetic drug carriers, and multimodal contrast agents. While the magnetic properties of small crystalline iron oxide nanoparticles are well understood, the superparamagnetic size limit constitutes a significant barrier for further size reduction. Iron (oxy)hydroxide phases, albeit very common in the natural world, are far less studied, generally due to their poor crystallinity. Templating ultrasmall nanoparticles on substrates such as graphene is a promising method to prevent aggregation, typically an issue for both material characterization and applications. We generate ultrasmall nanoparticles, directly on the carbon framework by the reaction of a graphenide potassium solution, charged graphene flakes, with iron(II) salts. After mild water oxidation, the obtained composite material consists of ultrasmall potassium ferrite nanoparticles bound to the graphene nanoflakes. Magnetic properties as evidenced by magnetometry and X-ray magnetic circular dichroism, with open magnetic hysteresis loops near room temperature, are widely different from classical ultrasmall superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles. The large value obtained for the effective magnetic anisotropy energy density K_eff accounts for the presence of magnetic ordering at rather high temperatures. The synthesis of ultrasmall potassium ferrite nanoparticles under such mild conditions is remarkable given the harsh conditions used for the classical syntheses of bulk potassium ferrites. Moreover, the potassium incorporation in the crystal lattice occurs in the presence of potassium cations under mild conditions. A transfer of this method to related reactions would be of great interest, which underlines the synthetic value of this study. These findings also give another view on the previously reported electrocatalytic properties of these nanocomposite materials, especially for the sought-after oxygen reduction/evolution reaction. Finally, their longitudinal and transverse proton NMR relaxivities when dispersed in water were assessed at 37 °C under a magnetic field of 1.41 T, allowing potential applications in biological imaging.

Carbon dots for cancer nanomedicine: a bright future

Cancer remains one of the main causes of death in the world. Early diagnosis and effective cancer therapies are required to treat this pathology. Traditional therapeutic approaches are limited by lack of specificity and systemic toxicity. In this scenario, nanomaterials could overcome many limitations of conventional approaches by reducing side effects, increasing tumor accumulation and improving the efficacy of drugs. In the past few decades, carbon nanomaterials (i.e., fullerenes, carbon nanotubes, and carbon dots) have attracted significant attention of researchers in various scientific fields including biomedicine due to their unique physical/chemical properties and biological compatibility and are among the most promising materials that have already changed and will keep changing human life. Recently, because of their functionalization and stability, carbon nanomaterials have been explored as a novel tool for the delivery of therapeutic cancer drugs. In this review, we present an overview of the development of carbon dot nanomaterials in the nanomedicine field by focusing on their synthesis, and structural and optical properties as well as their imaging, therapy and cargo delivery applications.

Magnetic Nanoparticles for Biomedical Applications: From the Soul of the Earth to the Deep History of Ourselves

Precisely engineered magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) have been widely explored for applications including theragnostic platforms, drug delivery systems, biomaterial/device coatings, tissue engineering scaffolds, performance-enhanced therapeutic alternatives, and even in SARS-CoV-2 detection strips. Such popularity is due to their unique, challenging, and tailorable physicochemical/magnetic properties. Given the wide biomedical-related potential applications of MNPs, significant achievements have been reached and published (exponentially) in the last five years, both in synthesis and application tailoring. Within this review, and in addition to essential works in this field, we have focused on the latest representative reports regarding the biomedical use of MNPs including characteristics related to their oriented synthesis, tailored geometry, and designed multibiofunctionality. Further, actual trends, needs, and limitations of magnetic-based nanostructures for biomedical applications will also be discussed.

Dextran-Curcumin Nanosystems Inhibit Cell Growth and Migration Regulating the Epithelial to Mesenchymal Transition in Prostate Cancer Cells

Functional nanocarriers which are able to simultaneously vectorize drugs to the site of interest and exert their own cytotoxic activity represent a significant breakthrough in the search for effective anticancer strategies with fewer side effects than conventional chemotherapeutics. Here, we propose previously developed, self-assembling dextran-curcumin nanoparticles for the treatment of prostate cancer in combination therapy with Doxorubicin (DOXO). Biological effectiveness was investigated by evaluating the cell viability in either cancer and normal cells, reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, apoptotic effect, interference with the cell cycle, and the ability to inhibit cell migration and reverse the epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT). The results proved a significant enhancement of curcumin efficiency upon immobilization in nanoparticles: IC50 reduced by a half, induction of apoptotic effect, and improved ROS production (from 67 to 134%) at low concentrations. Nanoparticles guaranteed a pH-dependent DOXO release, with a more efficient release in acidic environments. Finally, a synergistic effect between nanoparticles and Doxorubicin was demonstrated, with the free curcumin showing additive activity. Although in vivo studies are required to support the findings of this study, these preliminary in vitro data can be considered a proof of principle for the design of an effective therapy for prostate cancer treatment.

Doxorubicin-Loaded Gold Nanoarchitectures as a Therapeutic Strategy against Diffuse Intrinsic Pontine Glioma

Diffuse Intrinsic Pontine Gliomas (DIPGs) are highly aggressive paediatric brain tumours. Currently, irradiation is the only standard treatment, but is palliative in nature and most patients die within 12 months of diagnosis. Novel therapeutic approaches are urgently needed for the treatment of this devastating disease. We have developed non-persistent gold nano-architectures (NAs) functionalised with human serum albumin (HSA) for the delivery of doxorubicin. Doxorubicin has been previously reported to be cytotoxic in DIPG cells. In this study, we have preclinically evaluated the cytotoxic efficacy of doxorubicin delivered through gold nanoarchitectures (NAs-HSA-Dox). We found that DIPG neurospheres were equally sensitive to doxorubicin and doxorubicin-loaded NAs. Colony formation assays demonstrated greater potency of NAs-HSA-Dox on colony formation compared to doxorubicin. Western blot analysis indicated increased apoptotic markers cleaved Parp, cleaved caspase 3 and phosphorylated H2AX in NAs-HSA-Dox treated DIPG neurospheres. Live cell content and confocal imaging demonstrated significantly higher uptake of NAs-HSA-Dox into DIPG neurospheres compared to doxorubicin alone. Despite the potency of the NAs in vitro, treatment of an orthotopic model of DIPG showed no antitumour effect. This disparate outcome may be due to the integrity of the blood-brain barrier and highlights the need to develop therapies to enhance penetration of drugs into DIPG.

Natural Polysaccharide Carriers in Brain Delivery: Challenge and Perspective

Targeted drug delivery systems represent valuable tools to enhance the accumulation of therapeutics in the brain. Here, the presence of the blood brain barrier strongly hinders the passage of foreign substances, often limiting the effectiveness of pharmacological therapies. Among the plethora of materials used for the development of these systems, natural polysaccharides are attracting growing interest because of their biocompatibility, muco-adhesion, and chemical versatility which allow a wide range of carriers with tailored physico-chemical features to be synthetized. This review describes the state of the art in the field of targeted carriers based on natural polysaccharides over the last five years, focusing on the main targeting strategies, namely passive and active transport, stimuli-responsive materials and the administration route. In addition, in the last section, the efficacy of the reviewed carriers in each specific brain diseases is summarized and commented on in terms of enhancement of either blood brain barrier (BBB) permeation ability or drug bioavailability in the brain.

Reduction and functionalization of graphene oxide with L-cysteine: Synthesis, characterization and biocompatibility

This article presents data on the synthesis, identification, computer simulation and biocompatibility of graphene oxide (GO) functionalized with L-cysteine (GFC). It was determined that GO reacts with L-cysteine in two different ways: in an alkaline medium, L-cysteine reduces functional groups on the surface and at the boundaries of GO; with heating and the use of thionyl chloride, L-cysteine covalently attaches to GO through carboxylic groups only at the boundaries. The identification of GO, reduced graphene oxide and GFC was performed using various physicochemical methods, including infrared spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis, scanning electron microscopy and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy. Biocompatibility experiments included erythrocyte hemolysis, platelet aggregation, photodynamic and antiradical activity, binding to human serum albumin, and geno- and cytotoxicity studies. Applying density functional theory and molecular dynamics allowed us to obtain the structural and dynamic characteristics of a GFC-water binary system.

Wearable Fixation Device for a Magnetically Controllable Therapeutic Agent Carrier: Application to Cartilage Repair

Recently, significant research efforts have been devoted toward the development of magnetically controllable drug delivery systems, however, drug fixation after targeting remains a challenge hindering long-term therapeutic efficacy. To overcome this issue, we present a wearable therapeutic fixation device for fixing magnetically controllable therapeutic agent carriers (MCTACs) at defect sites and its application to cartilage repair using stem cell therapeutics. The developed device comprises an array of permanent magnets based on the Halbach array principle and a wearable band capable of wrapping the target body. The design of the permanent magnet array, in terms of the number of magnets and array configuration, was determined through univariate search optimization and 3D simulation. The device was fabricated for a given rat model and yielded a strong magnetic flux density (exceeding 40 mT) in the region of interest that was capable of fixing the MCTAC at the desired defect site. Through in-vitro and in-vivo experiments, we successfully demonstrated that MCTACs, both a stem cell spheroid and a micro-scaffold for cartilage repair, could be immobilized at defect sites. This research is expected to advance precise drug delivery technology based on MCTACs, enabling subject-specific routine life therapeutics. Further studies involving the proposed wearable fixation device will be conducted considering prognostics under actual clinical settings.

When polymers meet carbon nanostructures: expanding horizons in cancer therapy

The development of hybrid materials, which combine inorganic with organic materials, is receiving increasing attention by researchers. As a consequence of carbon nanostructures high chemical versatility, they exhibit enormous potential for new highly engineered multifunctional nanotherapeutic agents for cancer therapy. Whereas many groups are working on drug delivery systems for chemotherapy, the use of carbon nanohybrids for radiotherapy is rarely applied. Thus, nanotechnology offers a wide range of solutions to overcome the current obstacles of conventional chemo- and/or radiotherapies. Within this review, the structure and properties of carbon nanostructures (carbon nanotubes, nanographene oxide) functionalized preferentially with different types of polymers (synthetic, natural) are discussed. In short, synthesis approaches, toxicity investigations and anticancer efficacy of different carbon nanohybrids are described.

Dextran-Curcumin Nanoparticles as a Methotrexate Delivery Vehicle: A Step Forward in Breast Cancer Combination Therapy

With the aim to effectively deliver methotrexate (MTX) to breast cancer cells, we designed a nanocarrier system (DC) derived from the self-assembly of a dextran-curcumin conjugate prepared via enzyme chemistry with immobilized laccase acting as a solid biocatalyst. Nanoparticles consisted of homogeneously dispersed nanospheres with a mean diameter of 290 nm, as characterized by combined transmission electron microscopy and dynamic light scattering investigations. DC was able to control the MTX release overtime (t_1/2 value of 310 min), with cell internalization studies proving its presence inside MCF-7 cytoplasm. Finally, improved MTX efficacy was obtained in viability assays, and attributed to the synergy of curcumin moieties and loaded MTX as underlined by a combination index (CI) < 1.

Injectable Hydrogels for Cancer Therapy over the Last Decade

The interest in injectable hydrogels for cancer treatment has been significantly growing over the last decade, due to the availability of a wide range of starting polymer structures with tailored features and high chemical versatility. Many research groups are working on the development of highly engineered injectable delivery vehicle systems suitable for combined chemo-and radio-therapy, as well as thermal and photo-thermal ablation, with the aim of finding out effective solutions to overcome the current obstacles of conventional therapeutic protocols. Within this work, we have reviewed and discussed the most recent injectable hydrogel systems, focusing on the structure and properties of the starting polymers, which are mainly classified into natural or synthetic sources. Moreover, mapping the research landscape of the fabrication strategies, the main outcome of each system is discussed in light of possible clinical applications.

Combining Carbon Nanotubes and Chitosan for the Vectorization of Methotrexate to Lung Cancer Cells

A hybrid system composed of multi-walled carbon nanotubes coated with chitosan was proposed as a pH-responsive carrier for the vectorization of methotrexate to lung cancer. The effective coating of the carbon nanostructure by chitosan, quantified (20% by weight) by thermogravimetric analysis, was assessed by combined scanning and transmission electron microscopy, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (N1s signal), respectively. Furthermore, Raman spectroscopy was used to characterize the interaction between polysaccharide and carbon counterparts. Methotrexate was physically loaded onto the nanohybrid and the release profiles showed a pH-responsive behavior with higher and faster release in acidic (pH 5.0) vs. neutral (pH 7.4) environments. Empty nanoparticles were found to be highly biocompatible in either healthy (MRC-5) or cancerous (H1299) cells, with the nanocarrier being effective in reducing the drug toxicity on MRC-5 while enhancing the anticancer activity on H1299.

Magnetic Graphene Oxide Nanocarrier for Targeted Delivery of Cisplatin: A Perspective for Glioblastoma Treatment

Selective vectorization of Cisplatin (CisPt) to Glioblastoma U87 cells was exploited by the fabrication of a hybrid nanocarrier composed of magnetic γ-Fe2O3 nanoparticles and nanographene oxide (NGO). The magnetic component, obtained by annealing magnetite Fe3O4 and characterized by XRD measurements, was combined with NGO sheets prepared via a modified Hummer's method. The morphological and thermogravimetric analysis proved the effective binding of γ-Fe2O3 nanoparticles onto NGO layers. The magnetization measured under magnetic fields up to 7 Tesla at room temperature revealed superparamagnetic-like behavior with a maximum value of MS = 15 emu/g and coercivity HC ≈ 0 Oe within experimental error. The nanohybrid was found to possess high affinity towards CisPt, and a rather slow fractional release profile of 80% after 250 h. Negligible toxicity was observed for empty nanoparticles, while the retainment of CisPt anticancer activity upon loading into the carrier was observed, together with the possibility to spatially control the drug delivery at a target site.