Metal Organic Frameworks as Drug Targeting Delivery Vehicles in the Treatment of Cancer

Effect of sub-acute exposure of metal-organic framework-199 on cognitive function and oxidative stress level of brain tissue in rat

Metal-Organic Framework-199 (MOF-199) is a subgroup of MOFs that is utilized in different medical fields such as drug delivery. In the current study, the effect of sub-acute exposure to MOF-199 on spatial memory, working memory, inflammatory mediators' expression, and oxidative stress level of brain tissue has been investigated. Thirty-two male Wistar rats were randomly divided into four groups as vehicle, MOF-199 at doses 0.3, 3, or 6 mg/kg. After four injections of relevant interventions via tail vein during 14 days, behavioral parameters were investigated using Y-maze and Morris Water Maze (MWM) tests. Oxidative stress was measured by ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) and thiobarbituric acid-reacting substance (TBARS) tests. The expression levels of TNF-α and IL-1β were assessed by quantitative real-time reverse-transcription PCR (qRT-PCR). No significant differences were observed in working memory, spatial learning and memory of MOF-199 receiving rats. Additionally, the level of oxidative stress and inflammatory genes expression were not remarkably changed in the brain tissues of MOF-199 treated rats. Despite the lack of remarkable toxic effects of sub-acute exposure to MOF-199, more studies with a longer duration of administration are necessary to use this substance for drug delivery systems in diseases related to the nervous system.

Data-Driven and Machine Learning to Screen Metal-Organic Frameworks for the Efficient Separation of Methane

With the rapid growth of the economy, people are increasingly reliant on energy sources. However, in recent years, the energy crisis has gradually intensified. As a clean energy source, methane has garnered widespread attention for its development and utilization. This study employed both large-scale computational screening and machine learning to investigate the adsorption and diffusion properties of thousands of metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) in six gas binary mixtures of CH4 (H2/CH4, N2/CH4, O2/CH4, CO2/CH4, H2S/CH4, He/CH4) for methane purification. Firstly, a univariate analysis was conducted to discuss the relationships between the performance indicators of adsorbents and their characteristic descriptors. Subsequently, four machine learning methods were utilized to predict the diffusivity/selectivity of gas, with the light gradient boosting machine (LGBM) algorithm emerging as the optimal one, yielding R2 values of 0.954 for the diffusivity and 0.931 for the selectivity. Furthermore, the LGBM algorithm was combined with the SHapley Additive exPlanation (SHAP) technique to quantitatively analyze the relative importance of each MOF descriptor, revealing that the pore limiting diameter (PLD) was the most critical structural descriptor affecting molecular diffusivity. Finally, for each system of CH4 mixture, three high-performance MOFs were identified, and the commonalities among high-performance MOFs were analyzed, leading to the proposals of three design principles involving changes only to the metal centers, organic linkers, or topological structures. Thus, this work reveals microscopic insights into the separation mechanisms of CH4 from different binary mixtures in MOFs.

MOFs for next-generation cancer therapeutics through a biophysical approach-a review

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) have emerged as promising nanocarriers for cancer treatment due to their unique properties. Featuring high porosity, extensive surface area, chemical stability, and good biocompatibility, MOFs are ideal for efficient drug delivery, targeted therapy, and controlled release. They can be designed to target specific cellular organelles to disrupt metabolic processes in cancer cells. Additionally, functionalization with enzymes mimics their catalytic activity, enhancing photodynamic therapy and overcoming apoptosis resistance in cancer cells. The controllable and regular structure of MOFs, along with their tumor microenvironment responsiveness, make them promising nanocarriers for anticancer drugs. These carriers can effectively deliver a wide range of drugs with improved bioavailability, controlled release rate, and targeted delivery efficiency compared to alternatives. In this article, we review both experimental and computational studies focusing on the interaction between MOFs and drug, explicating the release mechanisms and stability in physiological conditions. Notably, we explore the relationship between MOF structure and its ability to damage cancer cells, elucidating why MOFs are excellent candidates for bio-applicability. By understanding the problem and exploring potential solutions, this review provides insights into the future directions for harnessing the full potential of MOFs, ultimately leading to improved therapeutic outcomes in cancer treatment.

A biomimetic camouflaged metal organic framework for enhanced siRNA delivery in the tumor environment

Gene silencing through RNA interference (RNAi), particularly using small double-stranded RNA (siRNA), has been identified as a potent strategy for targeted cancer treatment. Yet, its application faces challenges such as nuclease degradation, inefficient cellular uptake, endosomal entrapment, off-target effects, and immune responses, which have hindered its effective delivery. In the past few years, these challenges have been addressed significantly by using camouflaged metal-organic framework (MOF) nanocarriers. These nanocarriers protect siRNA from degradation, enhance cellular uptake, and reduce unintended side effects by effectively targeting desired cells while evading immune detection. By combining the properties of biomimetic membranes and MOFs, these nanocarriers offer superior benefits such as extended circulation times, enhanced stability, and reduced immune responses. Moreover, through ligand-receptor interactions, biomimetic membrane-coated MOFs achieve homologous targeting, minimizing off-target adverse effects. The MOFs, acting as the core, efficiently encapsulate and protect siRNA molecules, while the biomimetic membrane-coated surface provides homologous targeting, further increasing the precision of siRNA delivery to cancer cells. In particular, the biomimetic membranes help to shield the MOFs from the immune system, avoiding unwanted immune responses and improving their biocompatibility. The combination of siRNA with innovative nanocarriers, such as camouflaged-MOFs, presents a significant advancement in cancer therapy. The ability to deliver siRNA with precision and effectiveness using these camouflaged nanocarriers holds great promise for achieving more personalized and efficient cancer treatments in the future. This review article discusses the significant progress made in the development of siRNA therapeutics for cancer, focusing on their effective delivery through novel nanocarriers, with a particular emphasis on the role of metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) as camouflaged nanocarriers.

Co(II)-coordination Complex: Fluorescence Performances and Combined with Taxotere-Hydrogels on Breast Cancer Treatment and Clinical Care

In this study, a novel coordination polymer {Co2(Oaobtc)(bpe)(H2O)4]}n (1) was synthesized under hydrothermal conditions using a hybrid ligand synthesis method, where H4Oobtc represents 2,3,3'-tricarboxylate azobenzene, and bpe represents 1,2-bis(4-pyridyl)ethylene. The obtained CP1 was characterized by elemental analysis (EA), powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD), and thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA). Fluorescence testing confirmed the excellent photoluminescent performance of compound 1, indicating its potential as a cyan-emitting fluorescent material. Hyaluronic acid (HA) and carboxymethyl chitosan (CMCS) are natural polysaccharides known for their biocompatibility. HA/CMCS hydrogels were synthesized using a chemical synthesis method, featuring a three-dimensional network structure with interconnected pores, and an average pore size of 314.75 ± 11.25 μm. The characterization of the taxotere-loaded hydrogel was performed using infrared spectroscopy, confirming the effective encapsulation of the drug within the hydrogel. Utilizing taxotere as a model drug, a novel taxotere-loaded metal gel was synthesized, and its anticancer efficacy was evaluated. Furthermore, the influence of different pH levels on drug release rate was investigated. Finally, the encapsulation and release of taxotere in the hydrogel were studied using UV-visible spectroscopy.

Preparation of UiO-66 loaded Letrozole nano-drug delivery system: enhanced anticancer and apoptosis activity

The use of drug delivery systems in targeting and achieving the targeting of drugs in treating diseases, especially cancer, has attracted the attention of researchers. Letrozole is one of the drugs for the treatment of breast cancer. In this study, the organic-metallic pharmaceutical porous nanostructure based on zirconium UiO-66 loaded letrozole was synthesized. Its cytotoxicity and effect on apoptosis and migration against breast cancer cell line were investigated. In this experimental study, the UiO-66 nanoparticle-loaded letrozole was synthesized using zirconium chloride (ZrCl4), dimethylformamide (DMF), and HCl. Its characteristics were determined by scanning electron microscopy, and its average size was determined by the DLS method. Also, the rate of letrozole drug release from the nanoparticle was investigated in 24, 48, and 72 h. In addition, its cytotoxicity effects were investigated using the MTT colorimetric method at concentrations of 3.125-100 µg/ml against the breast cancer cell line (MCF-7) in the periods of 48 and 72 h. Also, the expression level of apoptotic genes Bax and Bcl2 was investigated by the Real-Time PCR method. Also, the amount of cell migration was done by the migration assay method. The results showed that UiO-66 bound to letrozole had a spherical morphology and an average size of 9.2 ± 160.1. Also, the letrozole drug was loaded by 62.21 ± 1.80% in UiO-66 nanoparticles and had a slower release pattern than free letrozole in the drug release test, so within 72 h, 99.99% of free letrozole was released in If in UiO-66 containing letrozole, 57.55% of the drug has been released. Also, the cytotoxicity results showed that UiO-66 bound to letrozole has more significant cytotoxic effects than free letrozole (p < 0.05). Also, the results of Bax and Bcl2 gene expression showed that the treatment of MCF-7 cells with UiO-66 nanoparticles attached to letrozole increased the expression of Bax and Bcl2 genes compared to the reference gene Beta-actin in MCF-7 cell line, respectively. (p < 0.05) increased by 3.71 ± 0.42 and (p < 0.01) decreased by 0.636 ± 0.034 (p < 0.05). Cell migration results showed that the concentration of 50 µg/ml of UiO-66 bound to letrozole decreased the migration of MCF-7 cells. Generally, the results of this study showed that UiO-66 loaded letrozole can be used as a suitable drug carrier for cellular purposes, as it has increased the effects of cytotoxicity and the rate of apoptosis in breast cancer cell line (MCF-7), so it can be used with more studies used nanocarriers as a drug delivery system.

Recent progress on polySarcosine as an alternative to PEGylation: Synthesis and biomedical applications

Biotherapeutic PEGylation to prolong action of medications has gained popularity over the last decades. Various hydrophilic natural polymers have been developed to tackle the drawbacks of PEGylation, such as its accelerated blood clearance and non-biodegradability. Polypeptoides, such as polysarcosine (pSar), have been explored as hydrophilic substitutes for PEG. pSar has PEG-like physicochemical characteristics such as water solubility and no reported cytotoxicity and immunogenicity. This review discusses pSar derivatives, synthesis, characterization approaches, biomedical applications, in addition to the challenges and future perspectives of pSar based biomaterials as an alternative to PEG.

Design and application of metal organic frameworks for heavy metals adsorption in water: a review

The growing apprehension surrounding heavy metal pollution in both environmental and industrial contexts has spurred extensive research into adsorption materials aimed at efficient remediation. Among these materials, Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs) have risen as versatile and promising contenders due to their adjustable properties, expansive surface areas, and sustainable characteristics, compared to traditional options like activated carbon and zeolites. This exhaustive review delves into the synthesis techniques, structural diversity, and adsorption capabilities of MOFs for the effective removal of heavy metals. The article explores the evolution of MOF design and fabrication methods, highlighting pivotal parameters influencing their adsorption performance, such as pore size, surface area, and the presence of functional groups. In this perspective review, a thorough analysis of various MOFs is presented, emphasizing the crucial role of ligands and metal nodes in adapting MOF properties for heavy metal removal. Moreover, the review delves into recent advancements in MOF-based composites and hybrid materials, shedding light on their heightened adsorption capacities, recyclability, and potential for regeneration. Challenges for optimization, regeneration efficiency and minimizing costs for large-scale applications are discussed.

Aptamer-functionalized MOFs and AI-driven strategies for early cancer diagnosis and therapeutics

Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs) have exceptional inherent properties that make them highly suitable for diverse applications, such as catalysis, storage, optics, chemo sensing, and biomedical science and technology. Over the past decades, researchers have utilized various techniques, including solvothermal, hydrothermal, mechanochemical, electrochemical, and ultrasonic, to synthesize MOFs with tailored properties. Post-synthetic modification of linkers, nodal components, and crystallite domain size and morphology can functionalize MOFs to improve their aptamer applications. Advancements in AI and machine learning led to the development of nonporous MOFs and nanoscale MOFs for medical purposes. MOFs have exhibited promise in cancer therapy, with the successful accumulation of a photosensitizer in cancer cells representing a significant breakthrough. This perspective is focused on MOFs' use as advanced materials and systems for cancer therapy, exploring the challenging aspects and promising features of MOF-based cancer diagnosis and treatment. The paper concludes by emphasizing the potential of MOFs as a transformative technology for cancer treatment and diagnosis.

Advancing Cancer Treatment: Enhanced Combination Therapy through Functionalized Porous Nanoparticles

Cancer remains a major global health challenge, necessitating the development of innovative treatment strategies. This review focuses on the functionalization of porous nanoparticles for combination therapy, a promising approach to enhance cancer treatment efficacy while mitigating the limitations associated with conventional methods. Combination therapy, integrating multiple treatment modalities such as chemotherapy, phototherapy, immunotherapy, and others, has emerged as an effective strategy to address the shortcomings of individual treatments. The unique properties of mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSN) and other porous materials, like nanoparticles coated with mesoporous silica (NP@MS), metal-organic frameworks (MOF), mesoporous platinum nanoparticles (mesoPt), and carbon dots (CDs), are being explored for drug solubility, bioavailability, targeted delivery, and controlled drug release. Recent advancements in the functionalization of mesoporous nanoparticles with ligands, biomaterials, and polymers are reviewed here, highlighting their role in enhancing the efficacy of combination therapy. Various research has demonstrated the effectiveness of these nanoparticles in co-delivering drugs and photosensitizers, achieving targeted delivery, and responding to multiple stimuli for controlled drug release. This review introduces the synthesis and functionalization methods of these porous nanoparticles, along with their applications in combination therapy.

Recent Trends in Curcumin-Containing Inorganic-Based Nanoparticles Intended for In Vivo Cancer Therapy

Curcumin is a natural compound that has been widely investigated thanks to its various biological properties, including antiproliferative. This molecule acts on different cancers such as lung, breast, pancreatic, colorectal, etc. However, the bioactive actions of curcumin have limitations when its physicochemical properties compromise its pharmacological potential. As a therapeutic strategy against cancer, curcumin has been associated with inorganic nanoparticles. These nanocarriers are capable of delivering curcumin and offering physicochemical properties that synergistically enhance anticancer properties. This review highlights the different types of curcumin-based inorganic nanoparticles and discusses their physicochemical properties and in vivo anticancer activity in different models of cancer.

Preparation and Evaluation of Aminomalononitrile-Coated Ca-Sr Metal-Organic Frameworks as Drug Delivery Carriers for Antibacterial Applications

After orthopedic surgery, antibiotics are usually employed to reduce the risk of infection. If it is possible to enhance antimicrobial functionality and incorporate antimicrobial agents into the bone-filling matrix, not only it can promote bone tissue regeneration, but it can also enable localized administration of medication to elevate antibacterial efficacy. Meanwhile, previous studies have shown that calcium and strontium can support the growth of osteoblastic cells and diminish bone resorption or deterioration. In the past few years, metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) have been widely used as drug carriers owing to their characteristic advantages. In this study, a MOF was prepared in an aqueous solution by a simple coprecipitation method with the organic ligand 1,3,5-tricarboxylic benzene (H3BTC) as a linker to form Ca-Sr-MOF. Furthermore, the Ca-Sr-MOF was coated with aminomalononitrile (AMN), which adhered through the electrostatic interactions between H3BTC and AMN. With this MOF (Ca-Sr-AMN-MOF), AMN polymerization reactions can occur in aqueous environments, and a polymer layer was observed on the MOF surface with moderate hydrophilicity. The prepared Ca-Sr-MOF and Ca-Sr-AMN-MOF were characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, powder X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, high-resolution transmission electron microscopy, and UV-visible spectroscopy. Finally, tetracycline (TC) was selected as the model drug to measure the drug loading efficiency, release profile, and antibiotic activity. The percent cumulative drug release of TC from Ca-Sr-MOF and Ca-Sr-AMN-MOF was 55.15 and 9.1%, respectively. The antibacterial effectiveness of TC-loaded MOF against Gram-negative Escherichia coli bacteria was evaluated, revealing the remarkable antimicrobial performance of these substances.

Core-shell inorganic NP@MOF nanostructures for targeted drug delivery and multimodal imaging-guided combination tumor treatment

It is well known that metal-organic framework (MOF) nanostructures have unique characteristics such as high porosity, large surface areas and adjustable functionalities, so they are ideal candidates for developing drug delivery systems (DDSs) as well as theranostic platforms in cancer treatment. Despite the large number of MOF nanostructures that have been discovered, conventional MOF-derived nanosystems only have a single biofunctional MOF source with poor colloidal stability. Accordingly, developing core-shell MOF nanostructures with good colloidal stability is a useful method for generating efficient drug delivery, multimodal imaging and synergistic therapeutic systems. The preparation of core-shell MOF nanostructures has been done with a variety of materials, but inorganic nanoparticles (NPs) are highly effective for drug delivery and imaging-guided tumor treatment. Herein, we aimed to overview the synthesis of core-shell inorganic NP@MOF nanostructures followed by the application of core-shell MOFs derived from magnetic, quantum dots (QDs), gold (Au), and gadolinium (Gd) NPs in drug delivery and imaging-guided tumor treatment. Afterward, we surveyed different factors affecting prolonged drug delivery and cancer therapy, cellular uptake, biocompatibility, biodegradability, and enhanced permeation and retention (EPR) effect of core-shell MOFs. Last but not least, we discussed the challenges and the prospects of the field. We envision this article may hold great promise in providing valuable insights regarding the application of hybrid nanostructures as promising and potential candidates for multimodal imaging-guided combination cancer therapy.

Uptake and Intracellular Fate of Fluorophore Labeled Metal-Organic-Framework (MOF) Nanoparticles

The uptake and the fate of Zr-based metal-organic-framework nanoparticles labeled with organic fluorophores in HeLa cells has been monitored with fluorescence detection and elemental analysis. The nanoparticles have been selected as a model system of carrier nanoparticles (here Zr-based metal-organic-framework nanoparticles) with integrated cargo molecules (here organic fluorophores), with aze that does not allow for efficient exocytosis, a material which only partly degrades under acidic conditions as present in endosomes/lysosomes, and with limited colloidal stability. Data show that, for Zr-based metal-organic-framework nanoparticles of 40 nm size as investigated here, the number of nanoparticles per cells decreases faster due to particle redistribution upon proliferation than due to nanoparticle exocytosis and that, thus, also for this system, exocytosis is not an efficient pathway for clearance of the nanoparticles from the cells.

Stimuli-Responsive Design of Metal-Organic Frameworks for Cancer Theranostics: Current Challenges and Future Perspective

Scientific fraternity revealed the potential of stimuli-responsive nanotherapeutics for cancer treatment that aids in tackling the major restrictions of traditionally reported drug delivery systems. Among stimuli-responsive inorganic nanomaterials, metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) have transpired as unique porous materials displaying resilient structures and diverse applications in cancer theranostics. Mainly, it demonstrates tailorable porosity, versatile chemical configuration, tunable size and shape, and feasible surface functionalization, etc. The present review provides insights into the design of stimuli-responsive multifunctional MOFs for targeted drug delivery and bioimaging for effective cancer therapy. Initially, the concept of cancer, traditional cancer treatment, background of MOFs, and approaches for MOFs synthesis have been discussed. After this, applications of stimuli-responsive multifunctional MOFs-assisted nanostructures that include pH, light, ions, temperature, magnetic, redox, ATP, and others for targeted drug delivery and bioimaging in cancer have been thoroughly discussed. As an outcome, the designed multifunctional MOFs showed an alteration in properties due to the exogenous and endogenous stimuli that are beneficial for drug release and bioimaging. The several reported types of stimuli-responsive surface-modified MOFs revealed good biocompatibility to normal cells, promising drug loading capability, target-specific delivery of anticancer drugs into cancerous cells, etc. Despite substantial progress in this field, certain crucial issues need to be addressed to reap the clinical benefits of multifunctional MOFs. Specifically, the toxicological compatibility and biodegradability of the building blocks of MOFs demand a thorough evaluation. Moreover, the investigation of sustainable and greener synthesis methods is of the utmost importance. Also, the low flexibility, off-target accumulation, and compromised pharmacokinetic profile of stimuli-responsive MOFs have attracted keen attention. In conclusion, the surface-modified nanosized design of inorganic diverse stimuli-sensitive MOFs demonstrated great potential for targeted drug delivery and bioimaging in different kinds of cancers. In the future, the preference for stimuli-triggered MOFs will open a new frontier for cancer theranostic applications.

Drug delivery system for the extended-release of larotrectinib based on a biocompatible Fe-based metal-organic framework: synthesis, characterization, in vitro release properties and antitumor evaluation

Larotrectinib (Lar) is an orally administered tropomyosin receptor kinase (Trk) inhibitor with broad-spectrum antitumor activity that is available in clinical dosage forms as capsules and oral solutions. Currently, corresponding research is focused on developing new extended-release formulation systems for Lar. In this study, a biocompatible Fe-based metal-organic framework (Fe-MOF) carrier was synthesized by a solvent-based method, and a sustained-release drug delivery system (Lar@Fe-MOF) was constructed by nanoprecipitation and Lar loading. Lar@Fe-MOF was characterized by transmission electron microscopy (TEM), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and its drug loading capacity and drug release properties were measured by ultraviolet-visible (UV-vis) spectroscopy. Then, the toxicity and biocompatibility of the Fe-MOF carriers were evaluated using 3-(4, 5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2, 5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) and hemocompatibility assays. Finally, the anticancer potential of Lar@Fe-MOF was investigated. The TEM results showed that Lar@Fe-MOF had a homogeneous fusiform nanostructural morphology. The DSC and FTIR results showed that Fe-MOF carriers were successfully synthesized and loaded with Lar, which was mainly in an amorphous form. Lar@Fe-MOF showed a large drug loading capacity (-10%) and significant slow-release properties in vitro. The MTT assay results showed that Lar@Fe-MOF had good dose-dependent anticancer activity. The in vivo pharmacodynamic assay results showed that Fe-MOF significantly increased the anticancer activity of Lar and was biocompatible. In conclusion, the Lar@Fe-MOF system developed in this study is a promising drug delivery platform because it is easy to manufacture, has high biocompatibility and ideal drug release and accumulation, can effectively eliminate tumors with improved safety and is expected to further expand therapeutic applications.

Inorganic nanoparticles as scaffolds for bioorthogonal catalysts

Bioorthogonal transition metal catalysts (TMCs) transform therapeutically inactive molecules (pro-drugs) into active drug compounds. Inorganic nanoscaffolds protect and solubilize catalysts while offering a flexible design space for decoration with targeting elements and stimuli-responsive activity. These "drug factories" can activate pro-drugs in situ, localizing treatment to the disease site and minimizing off-target effects. Inorganic nanoscaffolds provide structurally diverse scaffolds for encapsulating TMCs. This ability to define the catalyst environment can be employed to enhance the stability and selectivity of the TMC, providing access to enzyme-like bioorthogonal processes. The use of inorganic nanomaterials as scaffolds TMCs and the use of these bioorthogonal nanozymes in vitro and in vivo applications will be discussed in this review.

Decellularized Scaffold-Based Artificial Vascular Patch for Porcine Vascular Repair

Vascular transplantation is an effective strategy against cardiovascular diseases (CVD), and artificial vascular patches are of urgent need across the world. In this work, we designed a multifunctional decellularized scaffolds (DCS)-based vascular patch for porcine vascular repair. Ammonium phosphate zwitter-ion (APZI) and poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) hydrogel were coated on the surface of DCS to improve the mechanical properties and biocompatibility of an artificial vascular patch. Then a heparin (Hep)-loaded metal-organic framework (MOF) further decorated the artificial vascular patches to inhibit blood coagulation and promote vascular endothelialization. The obtained artificial vascular patch showed suitable mechanical properties, good biocompatibility, and blood compatibility. In addition, the proliferation and adhesion of endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs) on the surface of artificial vascular patch improved a lot when compared with unmodified PVA/DCS. According to the results of B-ultrasound and CT images, the artificial vascular patch could maintain the patency of the implant site after implanting into the pig carotid artery. The current results solidly support that a MOF-Hep/APZI-PVA/DCS vascular patch would be an excellent vascular replacement material.

Utilization of Functionalized Metal–Organic Framework Nanoparticle as Targeted Drug Delivery System for Cancer Therapy

Cancer is a multifaceted disease that results from the complex interaction between genetic and environmental factors. Cancer is a mortal disease with the biggest clinical, societal, and economic burden. Research on better methods of the detection, diagnosis, and treatment of cancer is crucial. Recent advancements in material science have led to the development of metal–organic frameworks, also known as MOFs. MOFs have recently been established as promising and adaptable delivery platforms and target vehicles for cancer therapy. These MOFs have been constructed in a fashion that offers them the capability of drug release that is stimuli-responsive. This feature has the potential to be exploited for cancer therapy that is externally led. This review presents an in-depth summary of the research that has been conducted to date in the field of MOF-based nanoplatforms for cancer therapeutics.

Plasma Meets MOFs: Synthesis, Modifications, and Functionalities

As a porous and network materials consisting of metals and organic ligands, metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) have become one of excellent crystalline porous materials and play an important role in the era about materials science. Plasma, as a useful tool for stimulating efficient reactions under many conditions, and the plasma-assisted technology gets more attractions and endows MOFs more properties. Based on its feature, the research about the modifications and functionalities of MOFs have been developing a certain extent. This review contains a description of the methods for plasma-assisted modification and synthesis of MOFs, with specifically focusing on the plasma-assisted potential for modifications and functionalities of MOFs. The different applications of plasma-assisted MOFs were also presented.

Synthesis and Characterization of a Novel Zinc-Based Metal-Organic Framework Containing Benzoic Acid: A Low-Toxicity Carrier for Drug Delivery

In recent years, metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) have gained attention in the biomedical field, particularly as drug carriers for treating tumors. Therefore, we decided to synthesize a novel benzoic acid Zn-based MOF and study the Zn-based MOFs' drug-delivery properties and the drug-delivery system's anticancer effects. This study successfully synthesized a zinc-based MOF using solvent thermal synthesis. The crystal structure of a Zn-based MOF was investigated using thermogravimetric analysis, X-ray diffraction, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Subsequently, the results of UV spectrophotometry showed that Doxorubicin was successfully loaded with a loading amount of 33.74%. Furthermore, the drug release experiments demonstrated that the Zn-based MOF was pH-sensitive, releasing more at a pH of 3.8 than at pH 5.8 or 7.4. Finally, the Zn-based MOF loaded with drugs exhibited high antitumor activity against HepG2 cells while demonstrating remarkably low toxicity to normal cells (LO2). Taken together, these results demonstrate that the Zn-based MOF has the potential to serve as a carrier in the field of drug delivery systems.

Recent Advances in Metal-Organic-Framework-Based Nanocarriers for Controllable Drug Delivery and Release

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) have a good designability, a well-defined pore, stimulus responsiveness, a high surface area, and a controllable morphology. Up to now, various MOFs have been widely used as nanocarriers and have attracted lots of attention in the field of drug delivery and release because of their good biocompatibility and high-drug-loading capacity. Herein, we provide a comprehensive summary of MOF-based nanocarriers for drug delivery and release over the last five years. Meanwhile, some representative examples are highlighted in detail according to four categories, including the University of Oslo MOFs, Fe-MOFs, cyclodextrin MOFs, and other MOFs. Moreover, the opportunities and challenges of MOF-based smart delivery vehicles are discussed. We hope that this review will be helpful for researchers to understand the recent developments and challenges of MOF-based drug-delivery systems.

Multifunctional stimuli-responsive hybrid nanogels for cancer therapy: Current status and challenges

With cancer research shifting focus to achieving multifunctionality in cancer treatment strategies, hybrid nanogels are making a rapid rise to the spotlight as novel, multifunctional, stimuli-responsive, and biocompatible cancer therapeutic strategies. They can possess cancer cell-specific cytotoxic effects themselves, carry drugs or enzymes that can produce cytotoxic effects, improve imaging modalities, and target tumor cells over normal cells. Hybrid nanogels bring together a wide range of desirable properties for cancer treatment such as stimuli-responsiveness, efficient loading and protection of molecules such as drugs or enzymes, and effective crossing of cellular barriers among other properties. Despite their promising abilities, hybrid nanogels are still far from being used in the clinic, and their available data remains relatively limited. However, many studies can be done to facilitate this clinical transition. This review is critically summarizing and analyzing the recent information and progress on the use of hybrid nanogels particularly inorganic nanoparticle-based and organic nanoparticle-based hybrid nanogels in the field of oncology and future directions to aid in transferring those results to the clinic. This work concludes that the future of hybrid nanogels is greatly impacted by therapeutic and non-therapeutic factors. Therapeutic factors include the lack of hemocompatibility studies, acute and chronic toxicological studies, and information on agglomeration capability and extent, tumor heterogeneity, interaction with proteins in physiological fluids, endocytosis-exocytosis, and toxicity of the nanogels' breakdown products. Non-therapeutic factors include the lack of clear regulatory guidelines and standardized assays, limitations of animal models, and difficulties associated with good manufacture practices (GMP).

Drug-loaded PEG-PLGA nanoparticles for cancer treatment

Nanoparticles based on single-component synthetic polymers, such as poly (lactic acid-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA), have been extensively studied for antitumor drug delivery and adjuvant therapy due to their ability to encapsulate and release drugs, as well as passively target tumors. Amphiphilic block co-polymers, such as polyethylene glycol (PEG)-PLGA, have also been used to prepare multifunctional nanodrug delivery systems with prolonged circulation time and greater bioavailability that can encapsulate a wider variety of drugs, including small molecules, gene-targeting drugs, traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) and multi-target enzyme inhibitors, enhancing their antitumor effect and safety. In addition, the surface of PEG-PLGA nanoparticles has been modified with various ligands to achieve active targeting and selective accumulation of antitumor drugs in tumor cells. Modification with two ligands has also been applied with good antitumor effects, while the use of imaging agents and pH-responsive or magnetic materials has paved the way for the application of such nanoparticles in clinical diagnosis. In this work, we provide an overview of the synthesis and application of PEG-PLGA nanoparticles in cancer treatment and we discuss the recent advances in ligand modification for active tumor targeting.

Aperture Modulation of Isoreticular Metal Organic Frameworks for Targeted Antitumor Drug Delivery

The introduction of different pore diameters in metal organic frameworks (MOFs) could adjust their drug delivery performance. MOFs with customized structures have potential application value in targeted drug delivery. However, no research on this topic has been found so far. In this report, isoreticular metal organic frameworks (IRMOFs) have been taken as a typical case of tailor-made MOFs, the pore size of which is enlarged (average BJH pore sizes of about 2.43, 3.06, 5.47, and 6.50 nm were determined for IRMOF-1, IRMOF-8, IRMOF-10, and IRMOF-16, respectively), emphasizing the relationship between pore size and model drugs (Oridonin, ORI) and clarifying its potential working mechanism. IRMOF-1, whose pore size matches the size of ORI, has an outstanding drug loading capacity (57.93% by wt) and release profile (about 90% in 24 h at pH 7.4). IRMOF-1 was further coated with polyethylene glycol (PEG) modified with a cell penetrating peptide (CPP44) bound to M160 (CD163L1) protein for targeting of hepatic tumor lines. This nanoplatform (CPP44-PEG@ORI@IRMOF-1) exhibited acid-responsive drug release behavior (37.86% in 10 h at pH 7.4 and 66.66% in 10 h at pH 5.5) and significantly enhanced antitumor effects. The results of cell targeting and in vivo animal imaging indicated that CPP44-PEG@ORI@IRMOF-1 may serve as a tumor-selective drug delivery nanoplatform. Toxicity assessment confirmed that PEGylated IRMOF-1 did not cause organ or systemic toxicity. Furthermore, it is encouraging that the IRMOF-based targeted drug delivery system with pore size modulation showed rapid clearance (most administered NPs are metabolized from urine and feces within 1 week) and avoided accumulation in the body, indicating their promise for biomedical applications. This MOF-based aperture modulation combined with a targeted modification strategy might find broad applications in cancer theranostics. Thus, it is convenient to customize personalized MOFs according to the size of drug molecules in future research.

Metal organic frameworks (MOFS) as non-viral carriers for DNA and RNA delivery: a review

Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs) are a class of crystalline materials that, thanks to their large surface area and high porosity, allow them to be used in various areas of knowledge. This diversity of applications is due to the metal ions and the organic binders that compose them, but it is also important to highlight the ability of MOFs to function as hosts for a great variety of molecules of very different sizes and chemical properties. The first existing approaches for incorporating biomolecules in MOFs are discussed: pore encapsulation, surface binding, covalent binding, and in-situ encapsulation. Next, we discuss the obstacles of designing MOFs for effective gene delivery and how to enhance the gene delivery using different strategies.

Fluorescent dendrimer-based probes for cell membrane imaging: Zebrafish epidermal labeling-based toxicity evaluation

Visualizing the plasma membrane of living mammalian cells both in vitro and in vivo is crucial for tracking their cellular activities. However, due to the complex and dynamic nature of the plasma membrane, most commercial dyes for membrane staining can only realize very limited imaging performance. Thus, precise and stable plasma membrane imaging remains technically challenging. Here, by taking advantage of the small, well-defined, and amine-rich dendrimers, we prepared poly(ethylene glycol)-cholesterol (PEG-Chol)-conjugated and cyanine dye (e.g., cyanine2, cyanine3, and cyanine5)-labeled dendrimer nanoprobes (termed DPC-Cy2, DPC-Cy3, and DPC-Cy5 NPs). It was revealed that these probes enabled universal, wash-free, long-term (at least 8 h), and multicolor (green, yellow, and red) plasma membrane labeling of a variety of live mammalian cells. Further, we confirmed that the nanoprobes (using DPC-Cy5 as a representative) could achieve high-quality, wash-free, and stable cell surface labeling of live zebrafish embryos. More importantly, we demonstrated that our probes could act as biosensors to visualize the toxicity of metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) toward the epidermal cells of zebrafish embryos, and thus they hold great potential for identifying the toxic effect of drugs/materials at the single-cell scale or in live animals. The present work highlights the advantages of utilizing dendrimers for constructing functional imaging materials, and it is also believed that the fluorescent dendrimer nanoprobes developed in this work may find wide applications like cell imaging, drug toxicity evaluation, and cellular state monitoring.

Enhanced Permeability and Retention Effect: A key facilitator for solid tumor targeting by nanoparticles

Exploring the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect through therapeutic nanoparticles has been a subject of considerable interest in tumor biology. This passive targeting based phenomenon exploits the leaky blood vasculature and the defective lymphatic drainage system of the heterogeneous tumor microenvironment resulting in enhanced preferential accumulation of the nanoparticles within the tumor tissues. This article reviews the fundamental studies to assess how the EPR effect plays an essential role in passive targeting. Further, it summarizes various therapeutic modalities of nanoformulation including chemo-photodynamic therapy, intravascular drug release, and photothermal immunotherapy to combat cancer using enhanced EPR effect in neoplasia region.

Porphyrin NanoMetal-Organic Frameworks as Cancer Theranostic Agents

Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs) are hybrid multifunctional platforms that have found remarkable applications in cancer treatment and diagnostics. Independently, these materials can be employed in cancer treatment as intelligent drug carriers in chemotherapy, photothermal therapy, and photodynamic therapy; conversely, MOFs can further be used as diagnostic tools in fluorescence imaging, magnetic resonance imaging, computed tomography imaging, and photoacoustic imaging. One essential property of these materials is their great ability to fine-tune their composition toward a specific application by way of a judicious choice of the starting building materials (metal nodes and organic ligands). Moreover, many advancements were made concerning the preparation of these materials, including the ability to downsize the crystallites yielding nanoporous porphyrin MOFs (NMOFs) which are of great interest for clinical treatment and diagnostic theranostic tools. The usage of porphyrins as ligands allows a high degree of multifunctionality. Historically these molecules are well known for their reactive oxygen species formation and strong fluorescence characteristics, and both have proved helpful in cancer treatment and diagnostic tools. The anticipation that porphyrins in MOFs could prompt the resulting materials to multifunctional theranostic platforms is a reality nowadays with a series of remarkable and ground-breaking reports available in the literature. This is particularly remarkable in the last five years, when the scientific community witnessed rapid development in porphyrin MOFs theranostic agents through the development of imaging technologies and treatment strategies for cancer. This manuscript reviews the most relevant recent results and achievements in this particular area of interest in MOF chemistry and application.

Recent advances in ZnO-based photosensitizers: Synthesis, modification, and applications in photodynamic cancer therapy

Zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) are important semiconductor materials with interesting photo-responsive properties. During the past, ZnO-based NPs have received considerable attention for photodynamic therapy (PDT) due to their biocompatibility and excellent potential of generating tumor-killing reactive oxygen species (ROS) through gentle photodynamic activation. This article provides a comprehensive review of the recent developments and improvements in optical properties of ZnO NPs as photosensitizers for PDT. The optical properties of ZnO-based photosensitizers are significantly dependent on their charge separation, absorption potential, band gap engineering, and surface area, which can be adjusted/tuned by doping, compositing, and morphology control. Here, we first summarize the recent progress in the charge separation capability, absorption potential, band gap engineering, and surface area of nanosized ZnO-based photosensitizers. Then, morphology control that is closely related to their synthesis method is discussed. Following on, the state-of-art for the ZnO-based NPs in the treatment of hypoxic tumors is comprehensively reviewed. Finally, we provide some outlooks on common targeted therapy methods for more effective tumor killing, including the attachment of small molecules, antibodies, ligands molecules, and receptors to NPs which further improve their selective distribution and targeting, hence improving the therapeutic effectiveness. The current review may provide useful guidance for the researchers who are interested in this promising dynamic cancer treatment technology.

Nanoscale Metal−Organic Frameworks and Their Nanomedicine Applications

Abundant connectivity among organic ligands and inorganic metal ions makes the physical and chemical characters of metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) could be precisely devised and modulated for specific applications. Especially nanoscale MOFs (NMOFs), a unique family of hybrid nanomaterials, with merits of holding the nature as the mainstay MOFs and demonstrating particle size in nanoscale range which enable them prospect platform in clinic. Adjustability of composition and structure allows NMOFs with different constituents, shapes, and characteristics. Oriented frameworks and highly porous provide enough space for packing therapeutic cargoes and various imaging agents efficiently. Moreover, the relatively labile metal-ligand bonds make NMOFs biodegradable in nature. So far, as a significant class of biomedically relevant nanomaterials, NMOFs have been explored as drug carriers, therapeutic preparation, and biosensing and imaging preparation owing to their high porosity, multifunctionality, and biocompatibility. This review provides up-to-date developments of NMOFs in biomedical applications with emphasis on size control, synthetic approaches, and surfaces functionalization as well as stability, degradation, and toxicity. The outlooks and several crucial issues of this area are also discussed, with the expectation that it may help arouse widespread attention on exploring NMOFs in potential clinical applications.

Encapsulation, Release, and Cytotoxicity of Doxorubicin Loaded in Liposomes, Micelles, and Metal-Organic Frameworks: A Review

Doxorubicin (DOX) is one of the most widely used anthracycline anticancer drugs due to its high efficacy and evident antitumoral activity on several cancer types. However, its effective utilization is hindered by the adverse side effects associated with its administration, the detriment to the patients’ quality of life, and general toxicity to healthy fast-dividing cells. Thus, delivering DOX to the tumor site encapsulated inside nanocarrier-based systems is an area of research that has garnered colossal interest in targeted medicine. Nanoparticles can be used as vehicles for the localized delivery and release of DOX, decreasing the effects on neighboring healthy cells and providing more control over the drug’s release and distribution. This review presents an overview of DOX-based nanocarrier delivery systems, covering loading methods, release rate, and the cytotoxicity of liposomal, micellar, and metal organic frameworks (MOFs) platforms.

Zinc-Based Metal-Organic Frameworks in Drug Delivery, Cell Imaging, and Sensing

The design and structural frameworks for targeted drug delivery of medicinal compounds and improved cell imaging have been developed with several advantages. However, metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are supplemented tremendously for medical uses with efficient efficacy. These MOFs are considered as an absolutely new class of porous materials, extensively used in drug delivery systems, cell imaging, and detecting the analytes, especially for cancer biomarkers, due to their excellent biocompatibility, easy functionalization, high storage capacity, and excellent biodegradability. While Zn-metal centers in MOFs have been found by enhanced efficient detection and improved drug delivery, these Zn-based MOFs have appeared to be safe as elucidated by different cytotoxicity assays for targeted drug delivery. On the other hand, the MOF-based heterogeneous catalyst is durable and can regenerate multiple times without losing activity. Therefore, as functional carriers for drug delivery, cell imaging, and chemosensory, MOFs' chemical composition and flexible porous structure allowed engineering to improve their medical formulation and functionality. This review summarizes the methodology for fabricating ultrasensitive and selective Zn-MOF-based sensors, as well as their application in early cancer diagnosis and therapy. This review also offers a systematic approach to understanding the development of MOFs as efficient drug carriers and provides new insights on their applications and limitations in utility with possible solutions.

Diflunisal Targeted Delivery Systems: A Review

Diflunisal is a well-known drug for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, primary dysmenorrhea, and colon cancer. This molecule belongs to the group of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID) and thus possesses serious side effects such as cardiovascular diseases risk development, renal injury, and hepatic reactions. The last clinical data demonstrated that diflunisal is one of the recognized drugs for the treatment of cardiac amyloidosis and possesses a survival benefit similar to that of clinically approved tafamidis. Diflunisal stabilizes the transthyretin (TTR) tetramer and prevents the misfolding of monomers and dimers from forming amyloid deposits in the heart. To avoid serious side effects of diflunisal, the various delivery systems have been developed. In the present review, attention is given to the recent development of diflunisal-loaded delivery systems, its technology, release profiles, and effectiveness.

Aspects of high-performance and bio-acceptable magnetic nanoparticles for biomedical application

This review covers extensively the synthesis & surface modification, characterization, and application of magnetic nanoparticles. For biomedical applications, consideration should be given to factors such as design strategies, the synthesis process, coating, and surface passivation. The synthesis method regulates post-synthetic change and specific applications in vitro and in vivo imaging/diagnosis and pharmacotherapy/administration. Special insights have been provided on biodistribution, pharmacokinetics, and toxicity in a living system, which is imperative for their wider application in biology. These nanoparticles can be decorated with multiple contrast agents and thus can also be used as a probe for multi-mode imaging or double/triple imaging, for example, MRI-CT, MRI-PET. Similarly loading with different drug molecules/dye/fluorescent molecules and integration with other carriers have found application not only in locating these particles in vivo but simultaneously target drug delivery/hyperthermia inside the body. Studies are underway to collect the potential of these magnetically driven nanoparticles in various scientific fields such as particle interaction, heat conduction, imaging, and magnetism. Surely, this comprehensive data will help in the further development of advanced techniques for theranostics based on high-performance magnetic nanoparticles and will lead this research area in a new sustainable direction.

Natural Products with Activity against Lung Cancer: A Review Focusing on the Tumor Microenvironment

Lung cancer is one of the most prevalent malignancies worldwide. Despite the undeniable progress in lung cancer research made over the past decade, it is still the leading cause of cancer-related deaths and continues to challenge scientists and researchers engaged in searching for therapeutics and drugs. The tumor microenvironment (TME) is recognized as one of the major hallmarks of epithelial cancers, including the majority of lung cancers, and is associated with tumorigenesis, progression, invasion, and metastasis. Targeting of the TME has received increasing attention in recent years. Natural products have historically made substantial contributions to pharmacotherapy, especially for cancer. In this review, we emphasize the role of the TME and summarize the experimental proof demonstrating the antitumor effects and underlying mechanisms of natural products that target the TME. We also review the effects of natural products used in combination with anticancer agents. Moreover, we highlight nanotechnology and other materials used to enhance the effects of natural products. Overall, our hope is that this review of these natural products will encourage more thoughts and ideas on therapeutic development to benefit lung cancer patients.

Dual-ligated metal organic framework as novel multifunctional nanovehicle for targeted drug delivery for hepatic cancer treatment

In the last decade, nanosized metal organic frameworks (NMOFs) have gained an increasing applicability as multifunctional nanocarriers for drug delivery in cancer therapy. However, only a limited number of platforms have been reported that can serve as an effective targeted drug delivery system (DDSs). Herein, we report rational design and construction of doxorubicin (DOX)-loaded nanoscale Zr (IV)-based NMOF (NH2-UiO-66) decorated with active tumor targeting moieties; folic acid (FA), lactobionic acid (LA), glycyrrhetinic acid (GA), and dual ligands of LA and GA, as efficient multifunctional DDSs for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) therapy. The success of modification was exhaustively validated by various structural, thermal and microscopic techniques. Biocompatibility studies indicated the safety of pristine NH2-UiO-66 against HSF cells whereas DOX-loaded dual-ligated NMOF was found to possess superior cytotoxicity against HepG2 cells which was further confirmed by flow cytometry. Moreover, fluorescence microscopy was used for monitoring cellular uptake in comparison to the non-ligated and mono-ligated NMOF. Additionally, the newly developed dual-ligated NMOF depicted a pH-responsiveness towards the DOX release. These findings open new avenues in designing various NMOF-based DDSs that actively target hepatic cancer to achieve precise therapy.

Nanosized biligated metal-organic framework systems for enhanced cellular and mitochondrial sequential targeting of hepatic carcinoma

Mitochondria are reported to play a paramount role in tumorigenesis which positions them as an instrumental druggable target. However, selective drug delivery to cancer-localized mitochondria remains challenging. Herein, we report for the first time, the design, development and evaluation of a hepatic cancer-specific mitochondria-targeted dual ligated nanoscale metal-organic framework (NMOF) for cellular and mitochondrial sequential drug delivery. Surface functionalization was performed through covalent-linking of folic acid and triphenylphosphonium moieties to the aminated Zr-based MOF, NH₂-UiO-66. The characterization of the dual-ligated NMOFs using XRD, FTIR, DSC and BET analysis proved the successful conjugation process. Assessment of the drug loading and release profiling of doxorubicin (DOX)-loaded NMOF confirmed the proper retention of the drug within the NMOF porous structure alongside enhanced release in the tumor acidic environment. Furthermore, biological evaluation of the anti-tumor activity of the DOX-loaded dual-ligated NMOF on hepatocellular carcinoma affirmed the superiority of the developed system in killing the cancerous cells via apoptosis induction and halting cell cycle progression. This study attempts to underscore the promising potential of surface functionalized NMOFs in developing anticancer drug delivery systems to achieve targeted therapy.