Cholesterol Levels Affect the Performance of AuNPs-Decorated Thermo-Sensitive Liposomes as Nanocarriers for Controlled Doxorubicin Delivery

A quality-by-design approach for optimizing the functionalization of gold nanoparticles onto the surface of doxorubicin-encapsulated liposomes

Stimulus-responsive liposomes (L) are increasingly recognized for their potential in enhancing therapies, especially in cancer nanomedicine, owing to their ability to encapsulate drugs of diverse properties efficiently. In this study, a quality-by-design (QbD) strategy was proposed to optimize the surface functionalization of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) on doxorubicin (Dox)-loaded L intended for improving cancer treatment. Thin-film hydration and pH-gradient methods were applied for L preparation and Dox loading, respectively. Through a Taguchi design (L9), the AuNPs surface functionalization was optimized by studying variables such as L-Dox:AuNPs ratio, stirring time, temperature, and post-functionalization period, and their impact on various L properties including size, polydispersity, and loading efficiency. This approach allowed thedevelopment of an AuNPs-L-Dox nanoplatform capable of controlled Dox release under bio-relevant conditions and dual pH/photothermal responsiveness for triggering drug release. Upon light irradiation, the nanoplatform exhibited enhanced anticancer efficacy against ovarian cancer cells, showcasing its potential for photothermal hyperthermia therapies. Biocompatibility assessment in absence of irradiation against keratinocytes confirmed safety without increased drug cytotoxicity. This study underscores the effectiveness of the QbD approach in optimizing key parameters for the functionalization of L-Dox with AuNPs, highlighting the potential of this nanoplatform for triggered Dox delivery in cancer nanomedicine, particularly in photothermal hyperthermia therapies.

Intertumoral and intratumoral barriers as approaches for drug delivery and theranostics to solid tumors using stimuli-responsive materials

The solid tumors provide a series of biological barriers in cellular microenvironment for designing drug delivery methods based on advanced stimuli-responsive materials. These intertumoral and intratumoral barriers consist of perforated endotheliums, tumor cell crowding, vascularity, lymphatic drainage blocking effect, extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins, hypoxia, and acidosis. Triggering opportunities have been drawn for solid tumor therapies based on single and dual stimuli-responsive drug delivery systems (DDSs) that not only improved drug targeting in deeper sites of the tumor microenvironments, but also facilitated the antitumor drug release efficiency. Single and dual stimuli-responsive materials which are known for their lowest side effects can be categorized in 17 main groups which involve to internal and external stimuli anticancer drug carriers in proportion to microenvironments of targeted solid tumors. Development of such drug carriers can circumvent barriers in clinical trial studies based on their superior capabilities in penetrating into more inaccessible sites of the tumor tissues. In recent designs, key characteristics of these DDSs such as fast response to intracellular and extracellular factors, effective cytotoxicity with minimum side effect, efficient permeability, and rate and location of drug release have been discussed as core concerns of designing paradigms of these materials.

The impact of phospholipids with high transition temperature to enhance redox-sensitive liposomal doxorubicin efficacy in colon carcinoma model

In this study, we have developed a redox-sensitive (RS) liposomal doxorubicin formulation by incorporating 10,10'-diselanediylbis decanoic acid (DDA) organoselenium compound as the RS moiety. Hence, several RS liposomal formulations were prepared by using DOPE, HSPC, DDA, mPEG2000-DSPE, and cholesterol. In situ drug loading using a pH gradient and citrate complex yielded high drug to lipid ratio and encapsulation efficiency (100%) for RS liposomes. Liposomal formulations were characterized in terms of size, surface charge and morphology, drug loading, release properties, cell uptake and cytotoxicity, as well as therapeutic efficacy in BALB/c mice bearing C26 tumor cells. The formulations showed an average particle size of 200 nm with narrow size distributions (PDI < 0.3), and negative surface charges varying from -6 mV to -18.6 mV. Our study confirms that the presence of the DDA compound in liposomes is highly sensitive to hydrogen peroxide at 0.1% w/v, resulting in a significant burst release of up to 40%. The in vivo therapeutic efficacy study in BALB/c mice bearing C26 colon carcinoma confirmed the promising function of RS liposomes in the tumor microenvironment which led to a prolonged median survival time (MST). The addition of hydrogenated soy phosphatidylcholine (HSPC) with a high transition temperature (Tm: 52-53.5°C) extended the MST of our 3-component formulation of F14 (DOPE/HSPC/DDA) to 60 days in comparison to Caelyx (PEGylated liposomal Dox), which is not RS-sensitive (39 days). Overall, HSPC liposomes bearing RS-sensitive moiety enhanced therapeutic efficacy against colon cancer in vitro and in vivo. This achievement unequivocally underscores the criticality of high-TM phospholipids, particularly HSPC, in significantly enhancing liposome stability within the bloodstream. In addition, RS liposomes enable the on-demand release of drugs, leveraging the redox environment of tumor cells, thereby augmenting the efficacy of the formulation.

Highly Efficient Photoswitchable Smart Polymeric Nanovehicle for Gene and Anticancer Drug Delivery in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer

Over the past few decades, there has been significant interest in smart drug delivery systems capable of carrying multiple drugs efficiently, particularly for treating genetic diseases such as cancer. Despite the development of various drug delivery systems, a safe and effective method for delivering both anticancer drugs and therapeutic genes for cancer therapy remains elusive. In this study, we describe the synthesis of a photoswitchable smart polymeric vehicle comprising a photoswitchable spiropyran moiety and an amino-acid-based cationic monomer-based block copolymer using reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization. This system aims at diagnosing triple-negative breast cancer and subsequently delivering genes and anticancer agents. Triple-negative breast cancer patients have elevated concentrations of Cu2+ ions, making them excellent targets for diagnosis. The polymer can detect Cu2+ ions with a low limit of detection value of 9.06 nM. In vitro studies on doxorubicin drug release demonstrated sustained delivery at acidic pH level similar to the tumor environment. Furthermore, the polymer exhibited excellent blood compatibility even at the concentration as high as 500 μg/mL. Additionally, it displayed a high transfection efficiency of approximately 82 ± 5% in MDA-MB-231 triple-negative breast cancer cells at an N/P ratio of 50:1. It is observed that mitochondrial membrane depolarization and intracellular reactive oxygen species generation are responsible for apoptosis and the higher number of apoptotic cells, which occurred through the arrest of the G2/M phase of the cell cycle were observed. Therefore, the synthesized light-responsive cationic polymer may be an effective system for diagnosis, with an efficient anticancer drug and gene carrier for the treatment of triple-negative breast cancer in the future.

Liposomal Nano-Based Drug Delivery Systems for Breast Cancer Therapy: Recent Advances and Progresses

Breast cancer is a highly prevalent disease on a global scale, with a 30% incidence rate among women and a 14% mortality rate. Developing countries bear a disproportionate share of the disease burden, while countries with greater technological advancements exhibit a higher incidence. A mere 7% of women under the age of 40 are diagnosed with breast cancer, and the prevalence of this ailment is significantly diminished among those aged 35 and younger. Chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and surgical intervention comprise the treatment protocol. However, the ongoing quest for a definitive cure for breast cancer continues. The propensity for cancer stem cells to metastasize and resistance to treatment constitute their Achilles' heel. The advancement of drug delivery techniques that target cancer cells specifically holds significant promise in terms of facilitating timely detection and effective intervention. Novel approaches to pharmaceutical delivery, including nanostructures and liposomes, may bring about substantial changes in the way breast cancer is managed. These systems offer a multitude of advantages, such as heightened bioavailability, enhanced solubility, targeted tumor destruction, and diminished adverse effects. The application of nano-drug delivery systems to administer anti-breast cancer medications is a significant subject of research. This article delves into the domain of breast cancer, conventional treatment methods, the incorporation of nanotechnology into managerial tactics, and strategic approaches aimed at tackling the disease at its core.

Nanoparticle-Mediated Hyperthermia and Cytotoxicity Mechanisms in Cancer

Hyperthermia has the potential to damage cancerous tissue by increasing the body temperature. However, targeting cancer cells whilst protecting the surrounding tissues is often challenging, especially when implemented in clinical practice. In this direction, there are data showing that the combination of nanotechnology and hyperthermia offers more successful penetration of nanoparticles in the tumor environment, thus allowing targeted hyperthermia in the region of interest. At the same time, unlike radiotherapy, the use of non-ionizing radiation makes hyperthermia an attractive therapeutic option. This review summarizes the existing literature regarding the use of hyperthermia and nanoparticles in cancer, with a focus on nanoparticle-induced cytotoxicity mechanisms.

Development of Robust Cationic Light-Activated Thermosensitive Liposomes: Choosing the Right Lipids

Extensive research has been conducted on cationic light-activated thermosensitive liposomes (CLTSLs) as a means for site-specific and controlled drug release; however, less attention has been given to the stability of these nanoparticles. Selecting the appropriate lipids is crucial for the development of a stable and responsive system. In this study, we investigated the impact of various lipids on the physical properties of cationic light-activated liposomes. Incorporating poly(ethylene glycol) PEG molecules resulted in uniform liposomes with low polydispersity index, while the addition of unsaturated lipid (DOTAP) resulted in extremely leaky liposomes, with almost 80% release in just 10 min of incubation at body temperature. Conversely, the inclusion of cholesterol in the formulation increased liposome stability too much and decreased their sensitivity to stimuli-responsive release, with only 14% release after 2 min of light exposure. To achieve stable and functional CLTSL, we substituted an equivalent amount of unsaturated lipid with a saturated lipid (DPTAP), resulting in stable liposomes at body temperature that were highly responsive to light, releasing 90% of their content in 10 s of light exposure. We also conducted two atomistic molecular dynamics simulations using lipid compositions with saturated and unsaturated lipids to investigate the effect of lipid composition on the dynamical properties of the liposomal lipid bilayer. Our findings suggest that the nature of lipids used to prepare liposomes significantly affects their properties, especially when the drug loading needs to be stable but triggered drug release properties are required at the same time. Selecting the appropriate lipids in the right amount is therefore essential for the preparation of liposomes with desirable properties.

Influence of cytochrome P450 3A4 and membrane lipid composition on doxorubicin activity

Drug resistance is known to depend on the interactions with cell membranes and other molecules such as human cytochromes P450 (CYPs) which are anchored on the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane and involved in the metabolism of anticancer drugs. In this study, we determined the influence from cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4) on the interaction between the drug doxorubicin (DOX) and Langmuir monolayers mimicking cell membranes. The lipid composition was varied by changing the relative concentrations of cholesterol (Chol), 1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DPPC), 1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine (DPPE), and L-α-phosphatidylinositol (PI). Three compositions were studied in detail which represented a healthy cell membrane and cancerous cell membranes. DOX induced an expansion in the surface pressure isotherms for all monolayers, with stronger effect for the composition of cancerous cell with a high Chol content, thus confirming the relevance of lipid composition. This effect decreased considerably when CYP3A4 was incorporated with the formation of CYP3A4-DOX complexes, according to results from polarization-modulated infrared reflection absorption spectroscopy (PM-IRRAS) measurements. Taken together, these results support the hypothesis of CYP3A4 being involved in drug resistance, which may be exploited to design strategies to enhance chemotherapy efficacy.

Redox-sensitive doxorubicin liposome: a formulation approach for targeted tumor therapy

In this study redox-sensitive (RS) liposomes manufactured using 10,10′-diselanediylbis decanoic acid (DDA), an organoselenium RS compound, to enhance the therapeutic performance of doxorubicin (Dox). The DDA structure was confirmed by 1H NMR and LC–MS/MS. Various liposomal formulations (33 formulations) were prepared using DOPE, Egg PC, and DOPC with Tm ˂ 0 and DDA. Some formulations had mPEG₂₀₀₀-DSPE and cholesterol. After extrusion, the external phase was exchanged with sodium bicarbonate to create a pH gradient. Then, Dox was remotely loaded into liposomes. The optimum formulations indicated a burst release of 30% in the presence of 0.1% hydrogen peroxide at pH 6.5, thanks to the redox-sensitive role of DDA moieties; conversely, Caelyx (PEGylated liposomal Dox) showed negligible release at this condition. RS liposomes consisting of DOPE/Egg PC/DDA at 37.5 /60/2.5% molar ratio, efficiently inhibited C26 tumors among other formulations. The release of Dox from RS liposomes in the TME through the DDA link fracture triggered by ROS or glutathione is seemingly the prerequisite for the formulations to exert their therapeutic action. These findings suggest the potential application of such intelligent formulations in the treatment of various malignancies where the TME redox feature could be exploited to achieve an improved therapeutic response.

Effect of Cholesterol on Nano-Structural Alteration of Light-Activatable Liposomes via Laser Irradiation: Small Angle Neutron Scattering Study

Although the light-activated liposomes have been extensively studied for drug delivery applications, the fundamental mechanism of the drug release based on lipid compositions has not been fully understood. Especially, despite the extensive use of cholesterol in the lipid composition, the role of cholesterol in the light-activated drug release has not been studied. In this study, the influence of cholesterol on drug release from light-responsive drug-encapsulated liposomes after activated by near infrared (NIR) laser was investigated. We prepared methotrexate (MTX)-encapsulated DSPC liposomes consisting of 0 mol% (-Chol) or 35 mol% cholesterol (+Chol), with (+Au) or without gold nanorods (-Au) on the lipid bilayer to compare drug release, morphological changes, and nanostructures after laser irradiations. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and small angel neutron scattering (SANS) data revealed that only +Chol +Au liposomes showed partial aggregation of the liposomes after laser irradiation. Similar trends on the drug release and structural change were observed when the liposomes were heated to above chain-transition temperature. Overall, we have found that (1) inclusion of 35 mol% cholesterol enhanced the permeability of lipid bilayers above T_c; (2) the mechanism of laser-activated liposomal drug delivery is disrupting lipid bilayer membranes by the photothermal effect in the presence of plasmonic materials. By understanding the fundamentals of the technology, precise controlled drug release at a targeted site with great stability and repeatability is anticipated.

pH-temperature dual-sensitive nucleolipid-containing stealth liposomes anchored with PEGylated AuNPs for triggering delivery of doxorubicin

Liposomes (Lip) are useful nanocarriers for drug delivery and cancer nanomedicine because of their ability to efficiently encapsulate drugs with different physical and chemical properties. The pH gradient between normal and tumoral tissues, and their rapid metabolism that induces hyperthermia encourage the development of pH- and thermo-sensitive Lip for delivering anticancer drugs. Nucleolipids have been studied as scaffolding material to prepare Lip, mainly for cancer therapy. Herein, we report for the first time the use of 1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-(cytidine diphosphate) (DG-CDP) to develop pH/thermo-sensitive nucleolipid-containing stealth Lip stabilized by combination with 1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DPPC) and cholesterol, anchored with NH₂-PEGylated gold nanoparticles (PEG-AuNPs, 15 nm) for triggering delivery of doxorubicin (Dox). The optimal composition of DPPC, DG-CDP and cholesterol (94:3:3) was established by Langmuir isotherms. Unloaded and Dox-loaded Lip and AuNPs-Lip exhibited nano-scale sizes (415-650 nm), acceptable polydispersity indexes (<0.33), spherical shapes, and negative Z-potential (-23- -6.6 mV) due to the phosphate groups of DG-CDP, which allowed the anchoring with positively charged AuNPs. High EE% were achieved (>78%) and although efficient control in the Dox release towards different receptor media was observed, the release of Dox from PEG-AuNPs-Lip-Dox was significantly triggered at acidic pH and hyperthermia temperature, demonstrating its responsiveness to both stimuli. Dox-loaded Lip showed high cytotoxic activity against MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells and SK-OV-3 ovarian cancer cells, suggesting that Dox was released from these nanocarriers over time. Overall, the liposomal formulations showed promising properties as stimuli-responsive nanocarriers for cancer nanomedicine, with prospects for hyperthermia therapy.