Development of Stable Nano-Sized Transfersomes as a Rectal Colloid for Enhanced Delivery of Cannabidiol

Thermoresponsive biomaterial system of irinotecan and curcumin for the treatment of colorectal cancer: in-vitro and in-vivo investigations

This study aims to develop a thermoresponsive biomaterial system of irinotecan (IRT) and curcumin (CUR) nano-transferosomal gel (IRT-CUR-NTG) for targeting colorectal cancer (CRC). The IRT-CUR-NTs were statistically optimized and loaded into poloxamer-based thermosensitive gel. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) of the IRT-CUR-NTs were performed, whereas pH, gelation time, gelation temperature, gel and mucoadhesive strength of the IRT-CUR-NTG were investigated. In-vitro release and anticancer analyses were explored using HT29 cells. Additionally, in-vivo pharmacokinetics study was investigated followed by histopathological examination and in-vivo anticancer analysis. The PS, PDI, ZP, %EE of IRT and %EE of CUR were found to be 136.15 nm, 0.143, -15.5 mV, 95.05% and 85.12%, respectively. IRT-CUR-NTs exhibited spherical shape with no chemical interactions among the constituents. Similarly, IRT-CUR-NTG was homogenous gel suitable for rectal administration. IRT-CUR-NTG manifested prolonged release profiles of IRT and CUR. Moreover, a significantly enhanced (4-fold) bioavailability and no toxicity of IRT-CUR-NTG was observed when compared with conventional gel. IRT-CUR-NTs were found to be more effective against HT29 cell lines. In-vivo antitumor analysis demonstrated significantly reduced tumor volume and tumor mass after treatment with IRT-CUT-NTG, indicating improved antitumor effect. It can be concluded that IRT-CUR-NTG is suitable biomaterial system for colorectal cancer.

Development and Characterization of Dual-Loaded Niosomal Ion-Sensitive In Situ Gel for Ocular Delivery

The study investigates the development and characterization of dual-loaded niosomes incorporated into ion-sensitive in situ gel as a potential drug delivery platform for ophthalmic application. Cannabidiol (CBD) and epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) simultaneously loaded niosomes were prepared via the thin film hydration (TFH) method followed by pulsatile sonication and were subjected to comprehensive physicochemical evaluation. The optimal composition was included in a gellan gum-based in situ gel, and the antimicrobial activity, in vitro toxicity in a suitable corneal epithelial model (HaCaT cell line), and antioxidant potential of the hybrid system were further assessed. Dual-loaded niosomes based on Span 60, Tween 60, and cholesterol (3.5:3.5:3 mol/mol) were characterized by appropriate size (250 nm), high entrapment efficiency values for both compounds (85% for CBD and 50% for EGCG) and sustained release profiles. The developed hybrid in situ gel exhibited suitable rheological characteristics to enhance the residence time on the ocular surface. The conducted microbiological studies reveal superior inhibition of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) adhesion by means of the niosomal in situ gel compared to the blank gel and untreated control. Regarding the antioxidant potential, the dual loading of CBD and EGCG in niosomes enhances their protective properties, and the inclusion of niosomes in gel form preserves these effects. The obtained outcomes indicate the developed niosomal in situ gel as a promising drug delivery platform in ophthalmology.

Development and Evaluation of Nano-Vesicular Emulsion-Based Gel as a Promising Approach for Dermal Atorvastatin Delivery Against Inflammation

Introduction

Atorvastatin (ATV), a medication used to reduce cholesterol levels, possesses properties that can counteract the damaging effects of free radicals and reduce inflammation. However, the administration of ATV orally is associated with low systemic bioavailability due to its limited capacity to dissolve in water and significant first-pass effect. This study aimed to assess the appropriateness of employing nano-vesicles for transdermal administration of ATV in order to enhance its anti-inflammatory effects.

Methods

ATV-loaded transethosomes (ATV-TEs) were optimized using the 33 Box-Behnken design. The ATV-TEs that were created were evaluated for their vesicle size, encapsulation efficiency (% EE), and percent release of drug. The optimum formulation was integrated into a hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) emulsion-based gel (ATV-TEs emulgel) using jojoba oil. ATV-TEs emulgel was examined for its physical characteristics, ex vivo permeability, histological, and anti-inflammatory effect in a rat model of inflamed paw edema.

Results

The optimized transethosomes exhibited a vesicle size of 158.00 nm and an encapsulation efficiency of 80.14 ± 1.42%. Furthermore, the use of transethosomal vesicles effectively prolonged the release of ATV for a duration of 24 hours, in contrast to the pure drug suspension. In addition, the transethosomal emulgel loaded with ATV exhibited a 3.8-fold increase in the transdermal flow of ATV, in comparison to the pure drug suspension. ATV-TEs emulgel demonstrated a strong anti-inflammatory impact in the carrageenan-induced paw edema model.

Discussion

This was evident from the significant reduction in paw edema, which was equivalent to the effect of the standard anti-inflammatory medicine, Diclofenac sodium.

Conclusion

In summary, transethosomes, as a whole, might potentially serve as an effective method for delivering drugs via the skin. This could improve the ability of ATV to reduce inflammation by increasing its absorption through the skin.

Novel drug delivery systems in colorectal cancer: Advances and future prospects

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is an abnormal proliferation of cells within the colon and rectum, leading to the formation of polyps and disruption of mucosal functions. The disease development is influenced by a combination of factors, including inflammation, exposure to environmental mutagens, genetic alterations, and impairment in signaling pathways. Traditional treatments such as surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy are often used but have limitations, including poor solubility and permeability, treatment resistance, side effects, and post-surgery issues. Novel Drug Delivery Systems (NDDS) have emerged as a superior alternative, offering enhanced drug solubility, precision in targeting cancer cells, and regulated drug release. Thereby addressing the shortcomings of conventional therapies and showing promise for more effective CRC management. The present review sheds light on the pathogenesis, signaling pathways, biomarkers, conventional treatments, need for NDDS, and application of NDDS against CRC. Additionally, clinical trials, ongoing clinical trials, marketed formulations, and patents on CRC are also covered in the present review.

CBD-Loaded Nanostructured Lipid Carriers: Optimization, Characterization, and Stability

Cannabidiol (CBD) has demonstrated its potential to enhance depression treatment through various biological pathways. However, the application potential of CBD is significantly impeded by its polymorphic nature, limited water solubility, and hepatic first-pass metabolism. To improve chemical stability and water solubility, nanostructured lipid carriers loaded with CBD (CBD-NLCs) were developed using a hot-melt emulsification method and optimized by response surface methodology (RSM). The process parameters were optimized using a four-factor and three-level Box-Behnken experimental design consisting of 29 experiments. The CBD-NLCs were formulated and characterized, demonstrating desirable properties, including a mean particle size of 54.33 nm, a PDI value of 0.118, a zeta potential of -29.7 mV, and an impressive encapsulation efficiency rate of 87.58%. The nanoparticles were found to possess an approximately spherical shape, as revealed by scanning and transmission electron microscopy. The stability studies have demonstrated that CBD-NLCs effectively mitigated the photodegradation of CBD and exhibited a stable behavior for 42 days when stored. The CBD-NLCs displayed a biphasic release profile characterized by an initial burst release (over 50% of CBD released within 20 min) followed by a subsequent gradual and sustained release, aligned with first-order kinetics and Fickian diffusion. These findings demonstrate the potential suitability of this formulation as a carrier for CBD in food fortification and pharmaceutical applications.

Development and characterization of a zeolite based drug delivery system: Application to cannabidiol oral delivery

The growing interest in the therapeutic potential of cannabidiol (CBD) has led to the need for effective and reliable delivery methods that overcome its low oral absorption. Zeolites, a class of porous nanoparticles, offer unique advantages as drug carriers due to their high surface area and adjustable pore size. In this study, a zeolite-based drug delivery system was developed for the encapsulation of CBD. The zeolite particles were characterized using various techniques such as Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), N2 adsorption analysis, Solid-state Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR), Direct Light Scattering (DLS), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) before and after the loading. The drug encapsulation efficiency, and the release profile of CBD from the zeolite matrix were evaluated in addition to in vitro dissolution experiments in the intestinal and gastric simulated fluids. The results showed that the loaded zeolite particles exhibited high encapsulation efficiency of 73.5 %. XRD analysis proved that the USY structure remained intact after loading with CBD. DLS and N2 adsorption analysis indicated that CBD was successfully loaded into the zeolite matrix. When compared to CBD containing particles in a commercialized capsule, the in-vitro dissolution rate of CBD loaded zeolite was significantly higher after 30 min in the simulated stomach (pH 1.8) and the intestinal (pH 6.8) fluids, 67.8 % versus 43.6 % and 62.6 % vs 38.4 % respectively. Our findings open new avenues for the use of zeolites as an efficient drug delivery system for drugs with low bioavailability like CBD.

Nose-to-Brain Targeted Delivery of Donepezil Hydrochloride via Novel Hyaluronic Acid-Doped Nanotransfersomes for Alzheimer's Disease Mitigation

Alzheimer's disease is the most serious neurodegenerative disorder characterized by cognitive and memorial defects alongside deterioration in behavioral, thinking and social skills. Donepezil hydrochloride (DPZ) is one of the current two FDA-approved cholinesterase inhibitors used for the management of Alzheimer's disease. The current study aimed to formulate hyaluronic acid-coated transfersomes containing DPZ (DPZ-HA-TFS) for brain delivery through the intranasal pathway to surpass its oral-correlated GIT side effects. DPZ-HA-TFS were produced using a thin film hydration method and optimized with a 24 factorial design. The influence of formulation parameters on vesicle diameter, entrapment, cumulative release after 8 h, and ex vivo nasal diffusion after 24 h was studied. The optimal formulation was then evaluated for morphology, stability, histopathology and in vivo biodistribution studies. The optimized DPZ-HA-TFS formulation elicited an acceptable vesicle size (227.5 nm) with 75.83% entrapment efficiency, 37.94% cumulative release after 8 h, 547.49 µg/cm2 permeated through nasal mucosa after 24 h and adequate stability. Histopathological analysis revealed that the formulated DPZ-HA-TFS was nontoxic and tolerable for intranasal delivery. Intranasally administered DPZ-HA-TFS manifested significantly superior values for drug targeting index (5.08), drug targeting efficiency (508.25%) and direct nose-to-brain transport percentage (80.32%). DPZ-HA-TFS might be deemed as a promising intranasal nano-cargo for DPZ cerebral delivery to tackle Alzheimer's disease safely, steadily and in a non-invasive long-term pattern.

Spray freeze dried cannabidiol with dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC) for inhalation and solubility enhancement

Pulmonary delivery is an efficient route of administration to deliver cannabidiol (CBD) due to the high bioavailability and fast onset of action. The major formulation challenge is the poor aqueous solubility of CBD. This study aimed to produce inhalable CBD powders with enhanced solubility and characterise their solid-state properties. CBD was spray freeze dried with mannitol or trehalose dihydrate with and without dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC). All four powders had acceptable yields at > 70 % with porous and spherical particles. The two crystalline mannitol powders contained less residual solvent than both amorphous trehalose ones. The addition of DPPC did not affect the crystallinity and residual solvent level of the powders. Instead, DPPC made the particles more porous, decreased the particle size from 19-23 µm to 11-13 µm, and increased CBD solubility from 0.36 µg/mL to over 2 µg/mL. The two DPPC powders were dispersed from a low resistance RS01 inhaler, showing acceptable aerosol performance with emitted fractions at 91-93 % and fine particle fractions < 5 µm at 34-43 %. These formulations can be used as a platform to deliver CBD and other cannabinoids by inhalation.

Formulation Development and Evaluation of Cannabidiol Hot-Melt Extruded Solid Self-Emulsifying Drug Delivery System for Oral Applications

Cannabidiol (CBD) is a highly lipophilic compound with poor oral bioavailability, due to poor aqueous solubility and extensive pre-systemic metabolism. The aim of this study was to explore the potential of employing Hot Melt Extrusion (HME) technology for the continuous production of Self Emulsifying Drug Delivery Systems (SEDDS) to improve the solubility and in vitro dissolution performance of CBD. Accordingly, different placebos were processed through HME in order to obtain a lead CBD loaded solid SEDDS. Two SEDDS were prepared with sesame oil, Poloxamer 188, Gelucire®59/14, PEO N80 and Soluplus®. Moreover, Vitamin E was added as an antioxidant. The SEDDS formulations demonstrated emulsification times of 9.19 and 9.30 min for F1 and F2 respectively. The formed emulsions showed smaller droplet size ranging from 150-400 nm that could improve lymphatic uptake of CBD and reduce first pass metabolism. Both formulations showed significantly faster in vitro dissolution rate (90% for F1 and 83% for F2) compared to 14% for the pure CBD within the first hour, giving an enhanced release profile. The formulations were tested for stability over a 60-day time period at 4°C, 25°C, and 40°C. Formulation F1 was stable over the 60-day time-period at 4°C. Therefore, the continuous HME technology could replace conventional methods for processing SEDDS and improve the oral delivery of CBD for better therapeutic outcomes.

Formulation and In Vitro-Ex vivo Evaluation of Cannabidiol and Cannabidiol-Valine-Hemisuccinate Loaded Lipid-Based Nanoformulations for Ocular Applications

The goal of this investigation is to develop stable ophthalmic nanoformulations containing cannabidiol (CBD) and its analog cannabidiol-valine-hemisuccinate (CBD-VHS) for improved ocular delivery. Two nanoformulations, nanoemulsion (NE) and nanomicelles (NMC), were developed and evaluated for physicochemical characteristics, drug-excipient compatibility, sterilization, thermal analysis, surface morphology, ex-vivo transcorneal permeation, corneal deposition, and stability. The saturation solubility studies revealed that among the surfactants tested, Cremophor EL had the highest solubilizing capacity for CBD (23.3 ± 0.1 mg/mL) and CBD-VHS (11.2 ± 0.2 mg/mL). The globule size for the lead CBD formulations (NE and NMC) ranged between 205 and 270 nm while CBD-VHS-NMC formulation had a particle size of about 78 nm. The sterilized formulations, except for CBD-VHS-NMC at 40 °C, were stable for three months of storage (last time point tested). Release, in terms of CBD, in the in-vitro release/diffusion studies over 18 h, were faster from the CBD-VHS nanomicelles (38 %) compared to that from the CBD nanoemulsion (16 %) and nanomicelles (33 %). Transcorneal permeation studies revealed improvement in CBD permeability and flux with both formulations; however, a greater improvement was observed with the NMC formulation compared to the NE formulation. In conclusion, the nanoformulations prepared could serve as efficient topical ocular drug delivery platforms for CBD and its analog.

Cannabidiol-Loaded Solid Lipid Nanoparticles Ameliorate the Inhibition of Proinflammatory Cytokines and Free Radicals in an In Vitro Inflammation-Induced Cell Model

Cannabidiol (CBD) is a non-psychoactive compound derived from Cannabis sativa. It has demonstrated promising effects in combating inflammation and holds potential as a treatment for the progression of chronic inflammation. However, the clinical application of CBD is limited due to its poor solubility and bioavailability. This study introduces an effective method for preparing CBD-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles (CBD-SLNs) using a combination of low-energy hot homogenization and ultrasonication. We enhanced this process by employing statistical optimization with response surface methodology (RSM). The optimized CBD-SLN formulation utilizes glyceryl monostearate as the primary lipid component of the nanocarrier. The CBD-SLN formulation is screened as a potential tool for managing chronic inflammation. Stable, uniformly dispersed spherical nanoparticles with a size of 123 nm, a surface charge of -32.1 mV, an encapsulation efficiency of 95.16%, and a drug loading of 2.36% were obtained. The CBD-SLNs exhibited sustained release properties, ensuring prolonged and controlled CBD delivery, which could potentially amplify its therapeutic effects. Additionally, we observed that CBD-SLNs significantly reduced both reactive oxygen and nitrogen species and proinflammatory cytokines in chondrocyte and macrophage cell lines, with these inhibitory effects being more pronounced than those of free CBD. In conclusion, CBD-SLNs demonstrated superiority over free CBD, highlighting its potential as an effective delivery system for CBD.

Strategies to Improve Cannabidiol Bioavailability and Drug Delivery

The poor physicochemical properties of cannabidiol (CBD) hamper its clinical development. The aim of this review was to examine the literature to identify novel oral products and delivery strategies for CBD, while assessing their clinical implications and translatability. Evaluation of the published literature revealed that oral CBD strategies are primarily focused on lipid-based and emulsion solutions or encapsulations, which improve the overall pharmacokinetics (PK) of CBD. Some emulsion formulations demonstrate more rapid systemic delivery. Variability in the PK effects of different oral CBD products is apparent across species. Several novel administration routes exist for CBD delivery that may offer promise for specific indications. For example, intranasal administration and inhalation allow quick delivery of CBD to the plasma and the brain, whereas transdermal and transmucosal administration routes deliver CBD systemically more slowly. There are limited but promising data on novel delivery routes such as intramuscular and subcutaneous. Very limited data show that CBD is generally well distributed across tissues and that some CBD products enable increased delivery of CBD to different brain regions. However, evidence is limited regarding whether changes in CBD PK profiles and tissue distribution equate to superior therapeutic efficacy across indications and whether specific CBD products might be suited to particular indications.

Photochemical stability of chitosan films doped with cannabis oil

The effect of UV radiation from three different sources on chitosan (CS) films containing the addition of 10% by weight of cannabis oil was investigated. Cannabis oil (CBD) alone exposed to UV is unstable, but its photostability significantly increases in the chitosan matrix. The course of photochemical reactions, studied by FTIR spectroscopy, is slow and inefficient in chitosan with CBD, even under high-energy UV sources. The research also included chitosan films with CBD cross-linked with dialdehyde starch (DAS). Using AFM microscopy and contact angle measurements, the morphology and surface properties of prepared chitosan films with CBD were investigated, respectively. It was found that CBD embedded in CS is characterized by the best photostability under the influence of an LED emitting long-wave radiation. Using a monochromatic and polychromatic UV lamp (HPK and UV-C) emitting high-energy radiation, gradual degradation accompanied by oxidation was observed, both in the CS chains and in the CBD additive. Additionally, changes in surface properties are observed during UV irradiation. It was concluded that CS protects CBD against photodegradation, and a further improvement in photochemical stability is achieved after system cross-linking with DAS.

Transfersome, an ultra-deformable lipid-based drug nanocarrier: an updated review with therapeutic applications

The application of nanotechnology with integration of chemical sciences is increasing continuously in the management of diseases. The drug's physicochemical and pharmacological characteristics are enhanced by application of nanotechnological principles. Several nanotechnology-based formulations are being investigated to improve patient compliance. One such novel nanocarrier system is transfersome (TFS) and is composed of natural biocompatible phospholipids and edge activators. Morphologically, TFS are similar to liposomes but functionally, these are ultra-deformable vesicles which can travel through pores smaller than their size. Because of their amphipathic nature, TFS have the potential to deliver the drugs through sensitive biological membranes, especially the blood-brain barrier, skin layers, and nasal epithelium. Different molecular weight drugs can be transferred inside the cell by encapsulation into the TFS. Knowing the tremendous potentiality of TFS, the present work provides an in-depth and detailed account (pharmaceutical and preclinical characteristics) of TFS incorporating different categories of therapeutic moieties (anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, anti-viral, anti-fungal, anti-oxidant, cardiovascular drugs, CNS acting drugs, vaccine delivery, and miscellaneous applications). It also includes information about the methods of preparation employed, significance of excipients used in the preparation, summary of clinical investigations performed, patent details, latest investigations, routes of administration, challenges, and future progresses related to TFS.

Nanocarriers for Cannabinoid Delivery: Enhancing Therapeutic Potential

Medical cannabis has potential therapeutic benefits in managing pain, anxiety, depression, and neurological and movement disorders. Phytocannabinoids derived from the cannabis plant are responsible for their pharmacological and therapeutic properties. However, the complexity of cannabis components, especially cannabinoids, poses a challenge to effective medicinal administration. Even with the increasing acceptance of cannabis-based medicines, achieving consistent bioavailability and targeted distribution remains difficult. Conventional administration methods are plagued by solubility and absorption problems requiring innovative solutions. After conducting a thorough review of research papers and patents, it has become evident that nanotechnology holds great promise as a solution. The comprehensive review of 36 research papers has yielded valuable insights, with 7 papers reporting enhanced bioavailability, while others have focused on improvements in release, solubility, and stability. Additionally, 19 patents have been analyzed, of which 7 specifically claim enhanced bioavailability, while the remaining patents describe various formulation methods. These patents outline effective techniques for encapsulating cannabis using nanocarriers, effectively addressing solubility and controlled release. Studies on the delivery of cannabis using nanocarriers focus on improving bioavailability, prolonging release, and targeting specific areas. This synthesis highlights the potential of nanotechnology to enhance cannabis therapies and pave the way for innovative interventions and precision medicine.

Cannabidiol - Help and hype in targeting mucosal diseases

Cannabidiol (CBD) is one of the most commonly utilised phytocannabinoids due to its non-psychoactive and multiple potential therapeutic properties and its non-selective pharmacology. Recent studies have demonstrated efficacy of CBD in some types of drug resistant epilepsies in combination with other therapies; comparative efficacy to other agents or placebo has been hoped for anxiety, chronic pain, and inflammatory disorders based on animal data. Although CBD products are generally treated as a restricted substance, these are being eased, partially in response to significant growth in CBD product usage and increased production but more due to emerging evidence about its safety and pharmacological properties. Currently, only one CBD product (Epidiolex®) has been approved by the Australian Therapeutic Goods Administration and US Food and Drug Administration. CBD has demonstrated promise in alleviating gut and lung diseases in vitro; however, its physicochemical properties pose a significant barrier to achieving pharmacological effects in in vivo and clinical trials. Improving CBD formulations and delivery methods using technologies including self-emulsifying emulsion, nano and micro particles could overcome these shortfalls and improve its efficacy. This review focuses on the therapeutic potential of CBD in gastrointestinal and lung diseases from the available in vitro, in vivo, and clinical research. We report on identified research gaps and obstacles in the development of CBD-based therapeutics, including novel delivery methods.

Spray-Dried Powder Containing Cannabigerol: A New Extemporaneous Emulgel for Topical Administration

Cannabigerol (CBG), a cannabinoid from Cannabis sativa L., recently attracted noteworthy attention for its dermatological applications, mainly due to its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antimicrobial effectiveness similar to those of cannabidiol (CBD). In this work, based on results from studies of in vitro permeation through biomimetic membranes performed with CBG and CBD in the presence and in the absence of a randomly substituted methyl-β-cyclodextrin (MβCD), a new CBG extemporaneous emulgel (oil-in-gel emulsion) formulation was developed by spray-drying. The powder (SDE) can be easily reconstituted with purified water, leading to a product with chemical-physical and technological characteristics that are comparable to those of the starting emulgels (E). Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), attenuated total reflection-Fourier transformed infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR), x-ray powder diffraction (XRPD), and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analyses demonstrated that the spray-drying treatment did not alter the chemical properties of CBG. This product can represent a metered-dosage form for the localized treatment of cutaneous afflictions such as acne and psoriasis.

A narrative review on Naringin and Naringenin as a possible bioenhancer in various drug-delivery formulations

Naringenin belongs to the flavanones and is mainly found in fruits (grapefruit and oranges) and vegetables. Naringenin exhibits lipid-lowering and insulin-like characteristics and is used to treat osteoporosis, cancer and cardiovascular disorders. Their incorporation into drug formulations offers several advantages, including enhanced solubility, improved bioavailability and targeted delivery. Naringin-based formulations are beneficial in cancer, for example controlling breast and prostate cancer by inhibition of CYP19. Naringin suppresses the PI3K/AKT signalling pathway, it triggers autophagy, which effectively halts the proliferation of gastric cancer cells. Naringin and naringenin co-administration or pre-administration has enhanced the target drug's potency and produced a synergistic effect. This published study demonstrates the potential applications of Naringin and Naringenin as recognized bio-enhancers.

Advanced application of nanotechnology in active constituents of Traditional Chinese Medicines

Traditional Chinese Medicines (TCMs) have been used for centuries for the treatment and management of various diseases. However, their effective delivery to targeted sites may be a major challenge due to their poor water solubility, low bioavailability, and potential toxicity. Nanocarriers, such as liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, inorganic nanoparticles and organic/inorganic nanohybrids based on active constituents from TCMs have been extensively studied as a promising strategy to improve the delivery of active constituents from TCMs to achieve a higher therapeutic effect with fewer side effects compared to conventional formulations. This review summarizes the recent advances in nanocarrier-based delivery systems for various types of active constituents of TCMs, including terpenoids, polyphenols, alkaloids, flavonoids, and quinones, from different natural sources. This review covers the design and preparation of nanocarriers, their characterization, and in vitro/vivo evaluations. Additionally, this review highlights the challenges and opportunities in the field and suggests future directions for research. Nanocarrier-based delivery systems have shown great potential in improving the therapeutic efficacy of TCMs, and this review may serve as a comprehensive resource to researchers in this field.

Nanoliposomes for Controlled Release of Cannabinodiol at Relevant Gastrointestinal Conditions

Cannabidiol (CBD) has significant therapeutic potential; nevertheless, its advance as an effective drug by the pharmaceutical business is hindered by its inherent characteristics, such as low bioavailability, low water solubility, and variable pharmacokinetic profiles. This research aimed to develop nanoliposomes using an easy and low-cost method to improve the hydrosolubility of CBD and achieve a controlled delivery of the active principle under relevant physiological conditions from the mouth to the intestine; the cytotoxic and antitumor activities were also evaluated. To achieve the objective, core-shell nanoliposomes based on CBD were synthesized in three easy steps and characterized in terms of shape, size, surface chemistry, thermal capacity, and surface charge density through transmission electron microscopy (TEM), dynamic light scattering (DLS), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and potential charge (PZ), respectively. CBD-controlled delivery trials were carried out under simulated mouth-duodenal conditions and fitted to Korsmeyer-Peppas and Noyes-Whitney models to conclude about the pharmacokinetics of CBD from nano-CBD. Cytotoxicity studies on nonmalignant human keratinocytes (HaCaT) were carried out to evaluate its safety and the recommended consumption dose, and finally, the antiproliferative capacity of nano-CBD on human colon carcinoma cells (SW480) was determined as beginning proposal for cancer treatment. The characterization results verified the water solubility for the CBD nanoencapsulated, the core-shell structure, the size in the nanometric regime, and the presence of the synthesis components. The dissolution rate at duodenal conditions was higher than that in buccal and stomach environments, respectively, and this behavior was associated with the shell (lecithin) chemical structure, which destabilizes at pH above 7.2, allowing the release by non-Fickian diffusion of CBD as corroborated by the Korsmeyer-Peppas model. In vitro biological tests revealed the innocuousness and cyto-security of nano-CBD up to 1000 mg·L-1 when evaluated on HaCaT cells and concentrations higher than 1000 mg·L-1 showed antitumor activity against human colon carcinoma cells (SW480) taking the first step as a chemotherapeutic proposal. These results are unprecedented and propose a selective delivery system based on nano-CBD at low cost and that provides a new form of administration and chemo treatment.

Dipeptide-1 modified nanostructured lipid carrier-based hydrogel with enhanced skin retention and topical efficacy of curcumin

Topical administration of curcumin (CUR), a natural polyphenol with potent anti-inflammation and analgesic activities, provides a potential approach for local skin diseases. However, the drug delivery efficiency is highly limited by skin barriers and poor bioavailability of CUR. Herein, we propose hydrogel containing CUR-encapsulated dipeptide-1-modified nanostructured lipid carriers (CUR-DP-NLCs gel) to enhance topical drug delivery, and improve the topical therapeutic effect. The prepared CUR-DP-NLCs were characterized and were suitably dispersed into the Pluronic F127 hydrogel for topical application. The optimized CUR-DP-NLCs had a particle size of 152.6 ± 3.47 nm, a zeta potential of -33.1 ± 1.46 mV, an entrapment efficiency of 99.83 ± 0.14%, and a spherical morphology. X-ray diffraction (XRD) studies confirmed that CUR was successfully entrapped by the NLCs in an amorphous form. CUR-DP-NLCs gel exhibited sustained release over 48 h and significantly increased the skin retention of CUR. In vitro skin retention of CUR with CUR-DP-NLCs gel was 2.14 and 2.85 times higher than that of unmodified NLCs gel and free CUR, respectively. Fluorescence microscopy imaging revealed the formed nanoparticles accumulated in the hair follicles with prolonged retention time to form a drug reservoir. The hematoxylin-eosin staining showed that CUR-DP-NLCs gel could change the microstructure of skin layers and disturb the skin barriers. After topical administration to mice, CUR-DP-NLCs gel showed better analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities with no potentially hazardous skin irritation. These results concluded that CUR-DP-NLCs gel is a promising strategy to increase topical drug delivery of CUR in the treatment of local skin diseases.

Development, Characterization and Pharmacological Evaluation of Cannabidiol-Loaded Long Circulating Niosomes

Cannabidiol (CBD) is a promising drug candidate with pleiotropic pharmacological activity, whose low aqueous solubility and unfavorable pharmacokinetics have presented obstacles to its full clinical implementation. The rational design of nanocarriers, including niosomes for CBD encapsulation, can provide a plausible approach to overcoming these limitations. The present study is focused on exploring the feasibility of copolymer-modified niosomes as platforms for systemic delivery of CBD. To confer steric stabilization, the niosomal membranes were grafted with newly synthesized amphiphilic linear or star-shaped 3- and 4-arm star-shaped copolymers based on polyglycidol (PG) and poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) blocks. The niosomes were prepared by film hydration method and were characterized by DLS, cryo-TEM, encapsulation efficacy, and in vitro release. Free and formulated cannabidiol were further investigated for cytotoxicity and pro-apoptotic and anti-inflammatory activities in vitro in three human tumor cell lines. The optimal formulation, based on Tween 60:Span60:Chol (3.5:3.5:3 molar ration) modified with 2.5 mol% star-shaped 3-arm copolymer, is characterized by a size of 235 nm, high encapsulation of CBD (94%), and controlled release properties. Niosomal cannabidiol retained the antineoplastic activity of the free agent, but noteworthy superior apoptogenic and inflammatory biomarker-modulating effects were established at equieffective exposure vs. the free drug. Specific alterations in key signaling molecules, implicated in programmed cell death, cancer cell biology, and inflammation, were recorded with the niosomal formulations.

Improved skin permeation of transferosomes containing Eulophia macrobulbon extract

Eulophia macrobulbon (EM) extract-loaded transferosomes represent an advanced approach for enhancing skin permeation of bioactive compounds. The formulations improving skin permeation and characterizations of transferosomes were studied, including morphology, entrapment efficiency (EE), vesicle size, polydispersity index (PDI), zeta potential, and skin permeation in the Strat-M® synthetic membrane. Vesicle size increased with increasing transition temperature (Tm) of phosphatidylcholine and the hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (HLB) of the surfactant used as an edge activator. EM extract-loaded transferosomes with varying amounts of phosphatidylcholine, surfactants, and EM extract showed non-significant differences in EE, PDI, and zeta potential. The results demonstrated that the EM extract-loaded transferosomes improved membrane permeability better than the EM solution. The EM solution exhibited a shorter lag time. Considering the advantages of the EM extract-loaded transferosomes and EM solutions, a combination of both formulations was developed in this study. The results showed that the lag time decreased and membrane permeation increased. This study highlights a novel system combining EM extract-loaded transferosomes and an EM solution, exhibiting considerable improvement in skin permeation and presenting the potential for an efficient transdermal drug delivery system for natural bioactive compounds.

The Skin and Natural Cannabinoids-Topical and Transdermal Applications

The chemical constituents of the Cannabis plant known as cannabinoids have been extensively researched for their potential therapeutic benefits. The use of cannabinoids applied to the skin as a potential method for both skin-related benefits and systemic administration has attracted increasing interest in recent years. This review aims to present an overview of the most recent scientific research on cannabinoids used topically, including their potential advantages for treating a number of skin conditions like psoriasis, atopic dermatitis, and acne. Additionally, with a focus on the pharmacokinetics and security of this route of administration, we investigate the potential of the transdermal delivery of cannabinoids as a method of systemic administration. The review also discusses the restrictions and difficulties related to the application of cannabinoids on the skin, emphasizing the potential of topical cannabinoids as a promising route for both localized and systemic administration. More studies are required to fully comprehend the efficacy and safety of cannabinoids in various settings.

Microemulsion-Based Keratin-Chitosan Gel for Improvement of Skin Permeation/Retention and Activity of Curcumin

Curcumin (Cur) is a kind of polyphenol with a variety of topical pharmacological properties including antioxidant, analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities. However, its low water solubility and poor skin bioavailability limit its effectiveness. In the current study, we aimed to develop microemulsion-based keratin-chitosan gel for the improvement of the topical activity of Cur. The curcumin-loaded microemulsion (CME) was formulated and then loaded into the keratin-chitosan (KCS) gel to form the CME-KCS gel. The formulated CME-KCS gel was evaluated for its characterization, in vitro release, in vitro skin permeation and in vivo activity. The results showed that the developed CME-KCS gel had an orange-yellow and gel-like appearance. The particle size and zeta potential of the CME-KCS gel were 186.45 ± 0.75 nm and 9.42 ± 0.86 mV, respectively. The CME-KCS gel showed desirable viscoelasticity, spreadability, bioadhesion and controlled drug release, which was suitable for topical application. The in vitro skin permeation and retention study showed that the CME-KCS gel had better in vitro skin penetration than the Cur solution and achieved maximum skin drug retention (3.75 ± 0.24 μg/cm²). In vivo experimental results confirmed that the CME-KCS gel was more effective than curcumin-loaded microemulsion (Cur-ME) in analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities. In addition, the CME-KCS gel did not cause any erythema or edema based on a mice skin irritation test. These findings indicated that the developed CME-KCS gel could improve the skin penetration and retention of Cur and could become a promising formulation for topical delivery to treat local diseases.

QbD-Optimized, Phospholipid-Based Elastic Nanovesicles for the Effective Delivery of 6-Gingerol: A Promising Topical Option for Pain-Related Disorders

In this study, elastic nanovesicles, constructed of phospholipids optimized by Quality by Design (QbD), release 6-gingerol (6-G), a natural chemical that may alleviate osteoporosis and musculoskeletal-related pain. A 6-gingerol-loaded transfersome (6-GTF) formulation was developed using a thin film and sonication approach. 6-GTFs were optimized using BBD. Vesicle size, PDI, zeta potential, TEM, in vitro drug release, and antioxidant activity were evaluated for the 6-GTF formulation. The optimized 6-GTF formulation had a 160.42 nm vesicle size, a 0.259 PDI, and a -32.12 mV zeta potential. TEM showed sphericity. The 6-GTF formulation's in vitro drug release was 69.21%, compared to 47.71% for the pure drug suspension. The Higuchi model best described 6-G release from transfersomes, while the Korsmeyer-Peppas model supported non-Fickian diffusion. 6-GTF had more antioxidant activity than the pure 6-G suspension. The optimized transfersome formulation was converted into a gel to improve skin retention and efficacy. The optimized gel had a spreadability of 13.46 ± 4.42 g·cm/s and an extrudability of 15.19 ± 2.01 g/cm². The suspension gel had a 1.5 μg/cm²/h ex vivo skin penetration flux, while the 6-GTF gel had 2.71 μg/cm²/h. Rhodamine B-loaded TF gel reached deeper skin layers (25 μm) compared to the control solution in the CLSM study. The gel formulation's pH, drug concentration, and texture were assessed. This study developed QbD-optimized 6-gingerol-loaded transfersomes. 6-GTF gel improved skin absorption, drug release, and antioxidant activity. These results show that the 6-GTF gel formulation has the ability to treat pain-related illnesses effectively. Hence, this study offers a possible topical treatment for conditions connected to pain.

Mixed Edge Activators in Ibuprofen-Loaded Transfersomes: An Innovative Optimization Strategy Using Box-Behnken Factorial Design

Transfersomes have been highlighted as an interesting nanotechnology-based approach to facilitate the skin delivery of bioactive compounds. Nevertheless, the properties of these nanosystems still need to be improved to enable knowledge transfer to the pharmaceutical industry and the development of more efficacious topical medicines. Quality-by-design strategies, such as Box-Behnken factorial design (BBD), are in line with the current need to use sustainable processes to develop new formulations. Thus, this work aimed at optimizing the physicochemical properties of transfersomes for cutaneous applications, by applying a BBD strategy to incorporate mixed edge activators with opposing hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (HLB). Tween^® 80 and Span^® 80 were used as edge activators and ibuprofen sodium salt (IBU) was selected as the model drug. After the initial screening of the IBU solubility in aqueous media, a BBD protocol was implemented, and the optimized formulation displayed appropriate physicochemical properties for skin delivery. By comparing the optimized transfersomes to equivalent liposomes, the incorporation of mixed edge activators was found to be beneficial to upgrade the storage stability of the nanosystems. Furthermore, their cytocompatibility was shown by cell viability studies using 3D HaCaT cultures. Altogether, the data herein bode well for future advances in the use of mixed edge activators in transfersomes for the management of skin conditions.

Cannabidiol-Loaded Nanocarriers and Their Therapeutic Applications

Cannabidiol (CBD), one of the most promising constituents isolated from Cannabis sativa, exhibits diverse pharmacological actions. However, the applications of CBD are restricted mainly due to its poor oral bioavailability. Therefore, researchers are focusing on the development of novel strategies for the effective delivery of CBD with improved oral bioavailability. In this context, researchers have designed nanocarriers to overcome limitations associated with CBD. The CBD-loaded nanocarriers assist in improving the therapeutic efficacy, targetability, and controlled biodistribution of CBD with negligible toxicity for treating various disease conditions. In this review, we have summarized and discussed various molecular targets, targeting mechanisms and types of nanocarrier-based delivery systems associated with CBD for the effective management of various disease conditions. This strategic information will help researchers in the establishment of novel nanotechnology interventions for targeting CBD.

Colonic drug delivery: Formulating the next generation of colon-targeted therapeutics

Colonic drug delivery can facilitate access to unique therapeutic targets and has the potential to enhance drug bioavailability whilst reducing off-target effects. Delivering drugs to the colon requires considered formulation development, as both oral and rectal dosage forms can encounter challenges if the colon's distinct physiological environment is not appreciated. As the therapeutic opportunities surrounding colonic drug delivery multiply, the success of novel pharmaceuticals lies in their design. This review provides a modern insight into the key parameters determining the effective design and development of colon-targeted medicines. Influential physiological features governing the release, dissolution, stability, and absorption of drugs in the colon are first discussed, followed by an overview of the most reliable colon-targeted formulation strategies. Finally, the most appropriate in vitro, in vivo, and in silico preclinical investigations are presented, with the goal of inspiring strategic development of new colon-targeted therapeutics.

Transdermal Delivery of 2-PAM as a Tool to Increase the Effectiveness of Traditional Treatment of Organophosphate Poisoning

For the first time, the efficacy of post-exposure treatment of organophosphate (OP) poisoning was increased by transdermal delivery of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) reactivator pyridine-2-aldoxime methochloride (2-PAM) as a preventive countermeasure. By selecting the optimal ratio of components, classical transfersomes (based on soybean phosphatidylcholine and Tween 20) and modified transfersomes (based on soybean phosphatidylcholine, Tween 20 and pyrrolidinium cationic surfactants with different hydrocarbon tail lengths) were obtained for 2-PAM encapsulation. Transfersomes modified with tetradecylpyrrolidinium bromide showed the best results in encapsulation efficiency and sustained release of 2-PAM from vesicles. Using Franz cells, it was found that the incorporation of surfactants into PC liposomes results in a more prolonged release of 2-PAM through the rat skin. Transfersomes containing 2-PAM, after exhaustive physical and chemical characterization, were embedded in a gel based on Carbopol^® 940. A significantly high degree of erythrocyte AChE reactivation (23 ± 7%) was shown for 2-PAM in unmodified transfersomes in vivo. Preliminary transdermal administration of 2-PAM 24 h before emergency post-exposure treatment of OP poisoning leads to an increase in the survival rate of rats from 55% to 90%.

Development and In Vitro/Ex Vivo Evaluation of Lecithin-Based Deformable Transfersomes and Transfersome-Based Gels for Combined Dermal Delivery of Meloxicam and Dexamethasone

Transfersomes (TFS) are the promising carriers for transdermal delivery of various low and high molecular weight drugs, owing to their self-regulating and self-optimizing nature. Herein, we report synthesis and characterization of TFS loaded with meloxicam (MLX), an NSAID, and dexamethasone (DEX), a steroid, for simultaneous transdermal delivery. The different formulations of TFS containing varying amounts of lecithin, Span 80, and Tween 80 (TFS-1 to TFS-6) were successfully prepared by thin-film hydration method. The size of ranged between 248 and 273 nm, zeta potential values covering from -62.6 to -69.5 mV, polydispersity index (PDI) values in between 0.329 and 0.526, and entrapment efficiency of MLX and DEX ranged between 63-96% and 48-81%, respectively. Release experiments at pH 7.4 demonstrated higher cumulative drug release attained with Tween 80 compared to Span 80-based TFS. The scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of selected formulations -1 and TFS-3 revealed spherical shape of vesicles. Furthermore, three optimized transfersomal formulations (based on entrapment efficiency, TFS-1, TFS-3, and TFS-5) were incorporated into carbopol-940 gels coded as TF-G1, TF-G3, and TF-G5. These transfersomal gels were subjected to pH, spreadability, viscosity, homogeneity, skin irritation, in vitro drug release, and ex vivo skin permeation studies, and the results were compared with plain (nontransfersomal) gel having MLX and DEX. TFS released 71.72% to 81.87% MLX in 12 h; whereas, DEX release was quantified as 74.72% to 83.72% in same time. Nevertheless, TF-based gels showed slower drug release; 51.54% to 59.60% for MLX and 48.98% to 61.23% for DEX. The TF-G systems showed 85.87% permeation of MLX (TF-G1), 68.15% (TF-G3), and 68.94% (TF-G5); whereas, 78.59%, 70.54%, and 75.97% of DEX was permeated by TF-G1, TF-G3, and TF-G5, respectively. Kinetic modeling of release and permeation data indicated to follow Korsmeyer-Peppas model showing diffusion diffusion-based drug moment. Conversely, plain gel influx was found mere 26.18% and 22.94% for MLX and DEX, respectively. These results suggest that TF-G loaded with MLX and DEX can be proposed as an alternate drug carriers for improved transdermal flux that will certainly increase therapeutic outcomes.

Advancements in Rectal Drug Delivery Systems: Clinical Trials, and Patents Perspective

The rectal route is an effective route for the local and systemic delivery of active pharmaceutical ingredients. The environment of the rectum is relatively constant with low enzymatic activity and is favorable for drugs having poor oral absorption, extensive first-pass metabolism, gastric irritation, stability issues in the gastric environment, localized activity, and for drugs that cannot be administered by other routes. The present review addresses the rectal physiology, rectal diseases, and pharmaceutical factors influencing rectal delivery of drugs and discusses different rectal drug delivery systems including suppositories, suspensions, microspheres, nanoparticles, liposomes, tablets, and hydrogels. Clinical trials on various rectal drug delivery systems are presented in tabular form. Applications of different novel drug delivery carriers viz. nanoparticles, liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, microspheres, transferosomes, nano-niosomes, and nanomicelles have been discussed and demonstrated for their potential use in rectal administration. Various opportunities and challenges for rectal delivery including recent advancements and patented formulations for rectal drug delivery have also been included.

Promising Nanocarriers to Enhance Solubility and Bioavailability of Cannabidiol for a Plethora of Therapeutic Opportunities

In recent years, the interest in cannabidiol (CBD) has increased because of the lack of psychoactive properties. However, CBD has low solubility and bioavailability, variable pharmacokinetics profiles, poor stability, and a pronounced presystemic metabolism. CBD nanoformulations include nanosuspensions, polymeric micelles and nanoparticles, hybrid nanoparticles jelled in cross-linked chitosan, and numerous nanosized lipid formulations, including nanostructured lipid carriers, vesicles, SNEEDS, nanoemulsions, and microemulsions. Nanoformulations have resulted in high CBD solubility, encapsulation efficiency, and stability, and sustained CBD release. Some studies assessed the increased C_max and AUC and decreased T_max. A rational evaluation of the studies reported in this review evidences how some of them are very preliminary and should be completed before performing clinical trials. Almost all the developed nanoparticles have simple architectures, are well-known and safe nanocarriers, or are even simple nanosuspensions. In addition, the conventional routes of administration are generally investigated. As a consequence, many of these studies are almost ready for forthcoming clinical translations. Some of the developed nanosystems are very promising for a plethora of therapeutic opportunities because of the versatility in terms of the release, the crossing of physiological barriers, and the number of possible routes of administration.

Improved Therapeutic Efficacy of CBD with Good Tolerance in the Treatment of Breast Cancer through Nanoencapsulation and in Combination with 20(S)-Protopanaxadiol (PPD)

Cannabidiol (CBD), a nonpsychoactive major component derived from Cannabis sativa, widely used in neurodegenerative diseases, has now been proven to have growth inhibitory effects on many tumor cell lines, including breast tumors. Meanwhile CBD can effectively alleviate cancer-associated pain, anxiety, and depression, especially tumor cachexia, thus it is very promising as an anti-tumor drug with unique advantages. 20(S)-Protopanaxadiol (PPD) derived from the best-known tonic Chinese herbal medicine Ginseng was designed to be co-loaded with CBD into liposomes to examine their synergistic tumor-inhibitory effect. The CBD-PPD co-loading liposomes (CP-liposomes) presented a mean particle size of 138.8 nm. Further glycosyl-modified CP-liposomes (GMCP-liposomes) were prepared by the incorporation of n-Dodecyl β-D-maltoside (Mal) into the liposomal bilayer with glucose residue anchored on the surface to act as a ligand targeting the GLUT1 receptor highly expressed on tumor cells. In vivo studies on murine breast tumor (4T1 cells)-bearing BALB/c mice demonstrated good dose dependent anti-tumor efficacy of CP-liposomes. A high tumor inhibition rate (TIR) of 82.2% was achieved with good tolerance. However, glycosylation modification failed to significantly enhance TIR of CP-liposomes. In summary, combined therapy with PPD proved to be a promising strategy for CBD to be developed into a novel antitumor drug, with characteristics of effectiveness, good tolerance, and the potential to overcome tumor cachexia.