Herbal Teas and Drinks: Folk Medicine of the Manoor Valley, Lesser Himalaya, Pakistan

Vegetation-environment interactions: plant species distribution and community assembly in mixed coniferous forests of Northwestern Himalayas

One of the main goals of ecological studies is to disentangle the dynamics that underlie the spatiotemporal distribution of biodiversity and further functions of the ecosystem. However, due to many ecological and geopolitical reasons, many remote areas with high plant species diversity have not been assessed using newly based analytical approaches for vegetation characterization. Here, we classified and characterized different vegetation types (i.e., major plant communities) based on indicator species and on the influence of different environmental gradients in the Himalayan mixed coniferous forest, Pakistan. For that, we addressed the following questions: Does the vegetation composition of the Himalayan mixed coniferous forest correlate with climatic, topographic, geographic, and edaphic variables? Is it possible to identify plant communities through indicator species in relation to environmental gradients using multivariate approaches? Can this multivariate be helpful for conservation planning? During four consecutive years we assessed the vegetation composition and environmental variables (21 variables divided in geographic, climatic, topographic, and edaphic groups) of 156 50 m-trasects between an elevation of 2000-4000 m. Using newly based analytical approaches for community characterization, we found a total of 218 plant species clustered into four plant communities with the influence of environmental gradients. The highest index of similarity was recorded between Pinus-Cedrus-Viburnum (PCV) and Viburnum-Pinus-Abies (VPA) communities, and the highest index of dissimilarity was recorded between PCV and Abies-Juniperus-Picea (AJP) communities. Among these four communities, highest number of plant species (156 species) was recorded in PCV, maximum alpha diversity (H' = 3.68) was reported in VPA, highest Simpson index (0.961) and Pielou's evenness (0.862) were reported in VPA and AJP. The edaphic gradients (i.e., organic matter, phosphorous, pH and soil texture) and climatic factors (temperature, humidity) were the strongest environmental gradients that were responsible for structuring and hosting the diverse plant communities in mixed coniferous forest. Finally, the Himalayan mixed coniferous structure is more influenced by the spatial turnover beta-diversity process (βsim) than by the species loss (nestedness-resultant, βsne). Our analysis of the vegetation structure along the environmental gradient in the Himalayan mixed coniferous forest supported by sophisticated analytical approaches reveled indicator species groups, which are associated to specific microclimatic zones (i.e., vegetation communities). Within this focus, we side with the view that these results can support conservation planning and management for similar and different areas providing mitigating and preventive measures to reduce potential negative impacts, such as anthropic and climatic.

Ethnic practices in treating skin diseases: The traditional dermatologist's role

This study documents the role of traditional medicinal and therapeutic plants in treating various skin ailments by indigenous communities of the tribal district of North Waziristan, Pakistan. A total of 130 informants and traditional dermatologists were interviewed. They employed 77 plant species belonging to 49 families to treat various skin ailments. The leading life form reported was herbs (41 species), whereas the dominant family was Lamiaceae (5 species). Leaves were the most commonly used plant part (37 species). The most preferred mode of preparation was paste (30.38%), and the dominant mode of administration was topical (69.23%). Important medicinal plants reported in this study are recommended for further phytochemical screening for bioactive constituents, which may lead to novel drug discoveries.

Ethnogynaecological Knowledge of Traditional Medicinal Plants Used by the Indigenous Communities of North Waziristan, Pakistan

Background

Since the beginning of civilization, medicinal plants have been used in human healthcare systems. Studies have been conducted worldwide to evaluate their efficacy, and some of the results have triggered the development of plant-based medications. Rural women in Pakistan frequently experience gynaecological disorders due to malnutrition and heavy physical work during pregnancy. Due to the low economic status, the remoteness of the area, and the lack of modern health services, herbal therapy for gynaecological disorders is common among the indigenous tribes of the study area.

Methods

Field surveys were carried out from April 2018 to October 2020 to collect data regarding medicinal plants used for different gynaecological disorders. A semistructured questionnaire was used to collect ethnogynaecological data.

Results

In total, 67 medicinal plant species belonging to 38 families are being used to treat 26 different gynaecological problems. The herbaceous growth form and the Lamiaceae family were recorded with the maximum number of plant species (42 species and 7 species, respectively). Leaves are the most highly utilized plant part, with 16 species. In the case preparation method, decoction was the dominant method (25 species, 36.76%). The informants reported the maximum number of species for the treatment of irregular menstrual flow as 11 species (15.28%). The highest relative frequency of citation (RFC) value was obtained for Acacia modesta (0.37), and the use value (UV) for Tecomella undulata (0.85). The highest informants' consensus factor (ICF) value (1.0) was obtained for emmenagogue and tonic each after delivery. The highest consensus index (CI%) value was calculated for Acacia modesta (36.92%). The Lamiaceae had the highest family importance value (FIV) (98.46%).

Conclusion

This is the first ever quantitative study focusing mainly on ethnogynaecological study conducted in the tribal areas of North Waziristan which highlights the importance of traditional herbal remedies for their basic medical requirements. The results of this study would serve as a baseline for advanced phytochemical and pharmacological screening, as well as conservationists for further studies.

Ethnoveterinary Practices of Medicinal Plants Among Tribes of Tribal District of North Waziristan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan

Domestic animals play a vital role in the development of human civilization. Plants are utilized as remedies for a variety of domestic animals, in addition to humans. The tribes of North Waziristan are extremely familiar with the therapeutic potential of medicinal plants as ethnoveterinary medicines. The present study was carried out during 2018–2019 to record ethnoveterinary knowledge of the local plants that are being used by the tribal communities of North Waziristan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. In all, 56 medicinal plant species belonging to 42 families were identified, which were reported to treat 45 different animal diseases. These included 32 herbs, 12 shrubs, and 12 trees. Among the plant families, Asteraceae contributed the most species (5 spp.), followed by Amaranthaceae (4 spp.), Solanaceae (4 species), and Alliaceae, Araceae, and Lamiaceae (2 spp. each). The most common ethnoveterinary applications were documented for the treatment of blood in urine, bone injury, colic, indigestion, postpartum retention, skin diseases, constipation, increased milk production, mastitis, foot, and mouth diseases.

Environmental variables drive plant species composition and distribution in the moist temperate forests of Northwestern Himalaya, Pakistan

By assessing plant species composition and distribution in biodiversity hotspots influenced by environmental gradients, we greatly advance our understanding of the local plant community and how environmental factors are affecting these communities. This is a proxy for determining how climate change influences plant communities in mountainous regions ("space-for-time" substitution). We evaluated plant species composition and distribution, and how and which environmental variables drive the plant communities in moist temperate zone of Manoor valley of Northwestern Himalaya, Pakistan. During four consecutive years (2015-2018), we sampled 30 sampling sites, measuring 21 environmental variables, and recording all plant species present in an altitudinal variable range of 1932-3168 m.a.s.l. We used different multivariate analyses to identify potential plant communities, and to evaluate the relative importance of each environmental variable in the species composition and distribution. Finally, we also evaluated diversity patterns, by comparing diversity indices and beta diversity processes. We found that (i) the moist temperate zone in this region can be divided in four different major plant communities; (ii) each plant community has a specific set of environmental drivers; (iii) there is a significant variation in plant species composition between communities, in which six species contributed most to the plant composition dissimilarity; (iv) there is a significant difference of the four diversity indices between communities; and (v) community structure is twice more influenced by the spatial turnover of species than by the species loss. Overall, we showed that altitudinal gradients offer an important range of different environmental variables, highlighting the existence of micro-climates that drive the structure and composition of plant species in each micro-region. Each plant community along the altitudinal gradient is influenced by a set of environmental variables, which lead to the presence of indicator species in each micro-region.

Typology of Pure Deodar Forests Driven by Vegetation–Environment Relations in Manoor Valley, Northwestern Himalaya

The current research was carried out to characterize the phytosociology of the forests of one of Pakistan’s most valuable tree species (Deodar) across its native range. In this context, our main hypothesis was that, along the altitudinal gradient, we would find different plant communities that would be driven by different environmental variables (climatic, edaphic, and physiographic). Therefore, to assess the vegetation structure of the pure Deodar forests of the unexplored Manoor Valley (Northwestern Himalaya), Pakistan, frequent field visits were carried out during different seasons of 2015–2018. Ecological methods: Line transects sampling (23 stands) and phytosociological attributes were evaluated in relation to geographical and environmental variables. Various statistical software applications (i.e., PCORD, RStudio 4.0, and R 3.6.1) were used to examine all of the gathered data of plant species and environmental variables. A total of three different plant communities (Cedrus–Isodon–Cynodon, Cedrus–Cynodon–Dryopteris, and Sambucus–Cedrus–Desmodium) were identified by grouping 162 species and 23 stands in pure Deodar forests under the influence of geographic, slope, edaphic, and climatic variables, ranging from 1580.8 to 2373.8 m. The altitude (1936–2373 m), slope angle (25–85°), sandy (29–48%) and loamy soil texture, wind speed (1.45 ms−1), and temperature (25.8 °C) all had a strong influence on the Sambucus–Cedrus–Desmodium community. In contrast with this, the Cedrus–Cynodon–Dryopteris community showed a positively significant relationship with the northeastern slope, silty (32–58%) and sandy (15.8–55%) loamy soil texture, and barometric pressure (814.3 pa). Nonetheless, the Cedrus–Isodon–Cynodon community revealed a significant positive association with the northeastern to southwestern slope, pH (6.3), wet bulb (19.7), and dew point (17.7). We found significant differences (p < 0.001) among the three communities found in the pure Deodar forests in the four diversity indexes. The Sambucus–Cedrus–Desmodium community has the maximum number of plants (129 species), Shannon’s diversity (H’ = 3.7), and Simpson’s dominance (0.98) values among the recorded communities. The Pielou’s evenness index value was led by the Cedrus–Isodon–Cynodon community (0.97). Beta diversity showed a dissimilarity lower than 50% among the three communities. Simple term effects in the canonical correspondence analysis model revealed significant (p < 0.05) differences in altitude, slope angle, slope (southeastern), and wind speed variables. The present investigation sheds light on vegetation pattern and species contribution as a function of environmental gradients and provides a baseline for future studies.

Indigenous knowledge and quantitative ethnobotany of the Tanawal area, Lesser Western Himalayas, Pakistan

Ethnobotanical field surveys were carried out in the Tanawal area of the Lesser Himalayan Region, Khyber Pakhtunkhawa, Province from April 2016 to October 2017. The area is located between 34.36 (34° 21' 30 N) latitude and 73.07 (73° 4' 0 E) longitude with an average elevation of 1374 meters above sea level. Ethnomedicinal data were collected through Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA), and participants were selected through the snow-boll technique. Semi-structured, in-depth and open-ended interviews were conducted. The data were quantitatively evaluated using ethnomedicinal indices i.e. Relative frequency of citation (RFCs), Fidelity level (FL), and Use Value (UV). The ethnobotanical data were also comparatively analyzed through the Jaccard Index (JI). The study yielded 66 medicinal plants in 62 genera and 43 families. Asteraceae and Solanaceae were the most important families with five medicinal taxa each. Regarding medicinal plant part utilization, leaves (43.28%) were used predominantly, followed by whole plant (14.92%) and fruits (14.92%). Decoction was the main drug formulation applied to 21 species (31.15%) and the oral route was most common (56.1%) while 31.2% of medicinal plants were used for both oral and topical applications. Fifty health disorders were recorded and grouped in 15 categories. Maximum species were used to treat gastrointestinal disorders i.e. 13 species, dermal problems (12 species), and respiratory tract ailments (9). The calculated RFCs ranged between 81 to 31. The most important medicinal plants were Acacia modesta, Citrullus vulgaris, Tamarindus indica, and Momordica charantia with an RGFC of 81 each. The UV ranged between 0.58 and 3.6. Medicinal taxa with the highest UV were Dioscorea deltoidea (3.6), Withania coagulans (3.3), Momordica charantia (3.5), Silybum marianum and Pyrus pashia (3.2). FL values showed that 28 (41.79%) species had a FL value below 50 (74.62%) while 39 (58.20%) had higher FL values. Momordica charantia, Tamarindus indica, Acacia modesta and Citrullus vulgaris were 95.2 each. The Jaccard Index (JI) values ranged from16.77 to 0.98. The current study also reported 16 medicinal plants, commonly used around the globe, have been rarely documented for their medicinal values in the local ethnomedicinal literature i.e. Althaea officinalis, Plantanus orientalis, Jasminum sombac, Maytenus royleana, Cucurbita maxima, Phyllanthus emblica, Citrullus vulgaris. Polygonatum verticilliatum, Caseria tomentosa, Cistanche tubulosa, Bambusa arundinacea, Schinus molle, Tamarindus indica, Pongamia pinnata, Citrus limon and Catharanthus roseus. However, 48 medicinal plants had been reported in the literature but the current study reported their novel medicinal uses. Important taxa should be established in botanical gardens for in-situ conservation, chemical investigation and sustainable utilization. It would also be effective to improve the livelihoods of the local population.

Species Distribution Pattern and Their Contribution in Plant Community Assembly in Response to Ecological Gradients of the Ecotonal Zone in the Himalayan Region

The ecotonal zones support populations that are acclimated to changing, fluctuating, and unstable conditions, and as a result, these populations are better equipped to adjust to expected change. In this context, a hypothesis was tested that there must be vegetation dominated by unique indicator plant species under the influence of ecological gradients in the ecotonal zone of Manoor Valley (northwestern Himalaya), Pakistan. Keeping the aforementioned hypothesis in mind, detailed field studies were conducted during different seasons in 2015-18. Line transect sampling and phytosociological characteristics (density, frequency, cover, and their relative values and Importance Value) were implemented as ecological methods. This investigation documented 97 plant species recorded from seven sampling sites. The community distribution modelling revealed that the ecological variables separate the seven sampling sites into two major plant communities (Indigofera-Parrotiopsis-Bistorta and Ziziphus-Leptopus-Quercus) recognized by TWINSPAN. The IBP communities showed a positive and significant correlation with altitude (1789.6-1896.3 m), sandy soil texture with a slightly acidic pH (6.4-6.5), and higher phosphorous (9-13 mg kg^-1). In contrast with this, the ZLQ community was recognized on the southern slope under the strong influence of high electrical conductivity (2.82-5.4 dsm^-1), organic matter (1.08-1.25%), calcium carbonate (5.8-7.6 mg kg^-1), potassium (202-220 mg kg^-1), and temperature (28.8-31.8 °C). Hence, both communities were found on opposite axes with clear differences based on the ecological gradients. NMDS clustered different species with similar habitats and different stands with common species, showing that plant species and stands were in a linear combination with ecological gradients. The IPB community has the maximum number of plant species (87 species), Shannon value (H' = 4), Simpson value (0.98), and Pielou's evenness value (0.96). Thus, the multivariate approaches revealed unique vegetation with sharp boundaries between communities which might be due to abrupt environmental changes.

Plant Resources Utilization among Different Ethnic Groups of Ladakh in Trans-Himalayan Region

Simple Summary

Indigenous communities are a large resource of increasingly endangered, traditionally used medicinal plants and the associated ecological knowledge, which needs to be documented quickly as the base to establish sustainable livelihoods and healthcare systems. Through the interaction of indigenous knowledge, biodiversity, and the surrounding environment, these communities have developed their livelihoods over time. In this study, we tried to obtain an in-depth understanding of ethnomedicinal, cultural, and ritual perspectives on plant diversity in the Ladakh region and evaluated how the wild flora of Ladakh could improve local livelihoods and alleviate poverty. By surveying and applying open- and close-ended semi-structured interviews and group discussions in three communities, we documented 105 ethnobotanically important plants belonging to 39 families. The Balti and Brokpa ethnic groups showed greater similarity, whereas the least overlap in plant use was observed between Beda and Brokpa. Plants common to all cultures were mostly used for medicinal applications, while some were also used for religious purposes in the two major religions (Islam and Buddhism). A total of 37 species were shared by all cultures (Balti, Brokpa, and Beda). The cluster analysis elucidated three major clusters of different ethnobotanical usage. The first cluster included food and medicinal plants, the second included clusters of dye and flavor plants, and the third included plants used for fragrance, oil, fuel wood, and fodder. Plant parts were collected based on their availability in distinct pheno-phases according to the Tibetan traditional calendar. This study’s findings revealed that plants provide tangible economic benefits to indigenous communities, in addition to aiding in the treatment of various ailments. Sustainable use and management of wild resources can help improve livelihoods and food security and alleviate poverty.

Abstract

The nomadic pastoral indigenous communities of the Ladakhi people share roots with Tibetan culture in terms of food, clothing, religion, festivals, and habits, and rely widely on plant resources for survival and livelihood. This survey was conducted during 2019–2021 to document the indigenous knowledge about plant resources of the Balti, Beda, and Brokpa communities of the Ladakh region, trans-Himalayas. Open- and close-ended semi-structured interviews (N = 184) and group discussions (N = 17) were used to collect the data. Quantitative data was further analyzed using various statistical tools. A total of 105 plant species belonging to 82 genera and 39 families were used as medicine, fuel wood, fragrance, oil, food, flavor, fodder, decoration, and dye. Among these, medicinal use was most prevalent, with 70% of use reports, followed by fodder and fuel wood. Leaves (27%) were the most preferred plant part used, followed by roots and flowers. The principal component analysis revealed five clusters of ethnobotanical usage, i.e., food, medicine, fuel wood, fodder, and fragrance, oil, dye, and flavor. The maximum number of plant species used was reported by the Brokpa, while the Beda reported the minimum number of plant species uses. Delphinium brunonianum, Waldheimia tomentosa, and Juniperus indica played a significant role in the cultural and religious ritual aspects, whereas Allium przewalskianum, Waldheimia tomentosa, Juniperus indica, and Hippophae rhamnoides were commonly used as a livelihood source among Ladakhi communities. The local people collected most plants (65%) for self-consumption, while the rest (35%) were sold in markets as a source of income. The sustainable utilization and management of plant resources by local people is a strategy to boost livelihoods and food security and alleviate poverty.

Phytochemical profile and pharmacological properties of Trifolium repens

Trifolium repens belongs to the family Leguminosae and has been used for therapeutic purposes as traditional medicine. The plant is widely used as fodder and leafy vegetables for human uses. However, there is a lack of a detailed review of its phytochemical profile and pharmacological properties. This review presents a comprehensive overview of the phytochemical profile and biological properties of T. repens. The plant is used as antioxidants and cholinesterase inhibitors and for anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, analgesic, antirheumatic ache, and antimicrobial purposes. This review has summarized the available updated useful information about the different bioactive compounds such as simple phenols, phenolic acids, flavones, flavonols, isoflavones, pterocarpans, cyanogenic glucosides, saponins, and condensed tannins present in T. repens. The pharmacological roles of these secondary metabolites present in T. repens have been presented. It has been revealed that T. repens contain important phytochemicals, which is the potential source of health-beneficial bioactive components for food and nutraceuticals industries.