Malus domestica: A Review on Nutritional Features, Chemical Composition, Traditional and Medicinal Value

An integrated approach for assessing the health risks of pesticide residues on apple: From field dynamics to human exposure

The apple (Malus domestica), a cultivated fruit extensively grown in temperate regions worldwide, is abundant in nutrients and phytochemicals that promote health. However, the application of pesticides in apple cultivation raises significant concern regarding their influence on food safety. This study investigated the dynamic behavior of five pesticides, including chlorpyrifos, imidacloprid, acetamiprid, carbendazim, prochloraz, in apple trees, utilizing both field experiments and predictive modeling to analyze their distribution, transfer, and degradation patterns. Results from the field experiment revealed that at harvest, the residue levels of the five pesticides on apple were below international and national maximum residue limits. The dynamiCROP modeling results, corresponding to the field trial findings, demonstrated that these pesticides exhibited comparable dissipation patterns across various environmental compartments. The primary sources of pesticides in apples were the air and the fruit surface up to 10 days after application, while the soil and leaf surface became the main sources over time. The transferred pesticides adhered to the apple fruits at varying rates and persist therein. Choosing pesticides with lower impact scores helped reduce the impacts on human health and the environment. The assessment of health risks associated with consuming apples containing pesticide residues suggested that the impact on human health is acceptable. These findings were crucial for apple producers, as they enable the optimization of pesticide application timing to ensure compliance with food safety standards and help improve pesticide management strategies in agriculture. This study is essential for minimizing the environmental impact of pesticides and enhancing sustainable agricultural practices.

Lycopene extract as an antibrowning agent for edible coating of fresh cut apples

Edible coatings have been utilized for fresh fruit and vegetable preservation to ensure their safety and freshness. The present study reported the effect of edible coatings incorporated with Lycopene extract and Ascorbic Acid on fresh cut Apple slices (Red Delicious) during storage at refrigeration temperature for 12 days. The dipping treatments include Lycopene extract (LC-100 mg), Ascorbic acid (AAC-100 mg) and a combination of both LC + AAC (100 mg lycopene extract and 100 mg Ascorbic acid). Quality parameters (color, physicochemical and enzymatic activities) were studied up to 12 days at refrigeration temperature. Dipping treatments of LC and LC + AAC significantly showed lowest enzymatic activity than AAC treatment. However, color was not preserved in LC + AAC treatments due to high concentration of olive oil in these treatments. Furthermore, physicochemical quality was better preserved in LC + AAC treatments.

Effects of apples (Malus domestica) and their derivatives on metabolic conditions related to inflammation and oxidative stress and an overview of by-products use in food processing

Apple (Malus domestica) is the third most produced fruit worldwide. It is a well-known source of bioactive compounds mainly represented by hydroxycinnamic acids, flavan-3-ols, dihydrochalcones, dehydroascorbic acid, carotenoids, chlorogenic acid, epicatechin, and phloridzin. Due to the lack of a recent evaluation of the clinical trials associated with apple consumption, this review investigated the effects of this fruit on metabolic conditions related to inflammation and oxidative stress and reviewed the applications of apple waste on food products. Thirty-three studies showed that apples or its derivatives exhibit anti-inflammatory and antioxidant actions, improve blood pressure, body fat, insulin resistance, dyslipidemia, and reduce cardiovascular risks. Apples have a great economic impact due to its several applications in the food industry and as a food supplement since it has impressive nutritional value. Dietary fiber from the fruit pomace can be used as a substitute for fat in food products or as an improver of fiber content in meat products. It can also be used in bakery and confectionary products or be fermented to produce alcohol. Pomace phytocompounds can also be isolated and applied as antioxidants in food products. The potential for the use of apples and by-products in the food industry can reduce environmental damage.

Dietary anti-inflammatory and anti-bacterial medicinal plants and its compounds in bovine mastitis associated impact on human life

Bovine mastitis (BM) is the most common bacterial mediated inflammatory disease in the dairy cattle that causes huge economic loss to the dairy industry due to decreased milk quality and quantity. Milk is the essential food in the human diet, and rich in crucial nutrients that helps in lowering the risk of diseases like hypertension, cardiovascular diseases and type 2 diabetes. The main causative agents of the disease include various gram negative, and positive bacteria, along with other risk factors such as udder shape, age, genetic, and environmental factors also contributes much for the disease. Currently, antibiotics, immunotherapy, probiotics, dry cow, and lactation therapy are commonly recommended for BM. However, these treatments can only decrease the rise of new cases but can't eliminate the causative agents, and they also exhibit several limitations. Hence, there is an urgent need of a potential source that can generate a typical and ideal treatment to overcome the limitations and eliminate the pathogens. Among the various sources, medicinal plants and its derived products always play a significant role in drug discovery against several diseases. In addition, they are also known for its low toxicity and minimum resistance features. Therefore, plants and its compounds that possess anti-inflammatory and anti-bacterial properties can serve better in bovine mastitis. In addition, the plants that are serving as a food source and possessing pharmacological properties can act even better in bovine mastitis. Hence, in this evidence-based study, we particularly review the dietary medicinal plants and derived products that are proven for anti-inflammatory and anti-bacterial effects. Moreover, the role of each dietary plant and its compounds along with possible role in the management of bovine mastitis are delineated. In this way, this article serves as a standalone source for the researchers working in this area to help in the management of BM.

Biocontrol of Diplodia bulgarica, the causal agent of apple canker, using Trichoderma zelobreve

Apple (Malus domestica Borkh) is one of the most consumed and nutritious fruits. Iran is one of the main producers of the apple in the world. Diplodia bulgarica is the major causal agent of apple tree decline in Iran. Biological control is a nature-friendly approach to plant disease management. Trichoderma zelobreve was isolated from apple trees infected with Diplodia bulgarica in West Azarbaijan province of Iran. The results showed that T. zelobreve strongly inhibited the colony growth of D. bulgarica. In vivo assay on detached branches of apple tree cv. Golden Delicious using T. zelobreve mycelial plug showed that canker length/stem length (CL/SL) and canker perimeter/stem perimeter (CP/SP) indices decreased by 76 and 69%, respectively, 21 days after inoculation. Additionally, wettable powder formulation (WPF) containing the antagonistic fungus "T. zelobreve" decreased CL and CP/SP by 75 and 67%, respectively, 6 months after inoculation. Moreover, canker progress curves and the area under the disease progress curve (AUDPC) supported these findings. The growth temperatures of the antagonist and pathogen were similar, indicating the adaptation of T. zelobreve for biocontrol of apple canker caused by D. bulgarica. The results also showed that T. zelobreve-based WPF stored at 25 °C assure excellent shelf life at least 4 months, allowing the bioproduct to be stored at room temperature, which is a great advantage and cost-effective option.

Fruit Quality Attributes of Organically Grown Norwegian Apples Are Affected by Cultivar and Location

In this work, 12 apple cultivars grown organically in three regions of Norway (Telemark, Ullensvang, Viken) were analyzed in terms of fruit quality, with the aim of equating different growing regions under specific climatic conditions. Apples were analyzed for concentration levels of minerals, sugars, sugar alcohols, organic acids, total phenolic content (TPC), radical scavenging activity (RSA), and phenolic profiles. Discovery "Rose" from Telemark stored the highest level of minerals (24,094.5 mg/kg dry weight). Glucose, fructose, sucrose, and sorbitol were the major carbohydrates, whereas the predominant organic acids were quinic acid and malic acid. Cultivar Discovery from Ullensvang had the highest TPC (9.22 g/kg) and RSA (229.32 mmol TE/kg). Of the polyphenols quantified, chlorogenic acid and kaempferol-3-O-glucoside were the most abounded, accounting for 85.50%. Principal component analysis (PCA) shows that the Ullensvang region is the richest source of most carbohydrates, organic acids (quinic, shikimic, and galacturonic), and most polyphenols, whereas the highest content of minerals and maleic acid characterized Viken. Regardless of location, the Discovery cultivar had, on average, the highest sugar and polyphenol contents. The results obtained suggest that organic apples from Norway are a rich source of beneficial compounds that can have a positive impact on human health. In addition, these results may be useful for consumers in identifying apple cultivars with desirable characteristics and for the fruit industry in tracing back the origin of apples. The findings could also be of great interest for locations with similar climate and soil conditions worldwide.

Exploring apple pectic polysaccharides: Extraction, characterization, and biological activities - A comprehensive review

Apple (Malus domestica) is a popular and ancient fruit of the Myrtaceae family. Apple fruit is well-known for its great nutritional and phytochemical content consisted of beneficial compounds such as polyphenols, polysaccharides, sterols, and organic acids. Polysaccharides extracted from different parts of the apple fruit, including the peel, pomace, or the whole fruit, have been extensively studied. Researchers have investigated the structural characteristics of these polysaccharides, such as molecular weight, type of monosaccharide unit, type of linkage and its position and arrangement. Besides this, functional properties and physicochemical and of apple polysaccharides have also been studied, along with the effects of extraction procedures, storage, and processing on cell wall polysaccharides. Various extraction techniques, including hot water extraction, enzymatic extraction, and solvent-assisted extraction, have been studied. From the findings, it was evident that apple polysaccharides are mainly composed of (1 → 3), (1 → 6): α-β-glycosidic linkage. Moreover, the apple polysaccharides were demonstrated to exhibit antioxidant, hepatoprotective, anti-cancer, hypoilipidemic, and enzyme inhibitory properties in vitro and in vivo. The potential applications of apple polysaccharides in the food, cosmetic, pharmaceutical, nutraceutical industries have also been explored in the present review. Overall, the research on apple polysaccharides highlights their significant potential as a source of biologically active compounds with various health benefits and practical applications.

Does an apple a day keep away diseases? Evidence and mechanism of action

Apples and their products exemplify the recently reemphasized link between dietary fruit intake and the alleviation of human disease. Their consumption does indeed improve human health due to their high phytochemical content. To identify potentially relevant articles from clinical trials, some epidemiological studies and meta-analyses, and in vitro and in vivo studies (cell cultures and animal models), PubMed was searched from January 1, 2012, to May 15, 2022. This review summarized the potential effects of apple and apple products (juices, puree, pomace, dried apples, extracts rich in apple bioactives and single apple bioactives) on health. Apples and apple products have protective effects against cardiovascular diseases, cancer, as well as mild cognitive impairment and promote hair growth, healing of burn wounds, improve the oral environment, prevent niacin-induced skin flushing, promote the relief of UV-induced skin pigmentation, and improve the symptoms of atopic dermatitis as well as cedar hay fever among others. These effects are associated with various mechanisms, such as vascular endothelial protection, blood lipids lowering, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antiapoptotic, anti-invasion, and antimetastatic effects. Meanwhile, it has provided an important reference for the application and development of medicine, nutrition, and other fields.

Anti-Diabetic Potential of Polyphenol-Rich Fruits from the Maleae Tribe-A Review of In Vitro and In Vivo Animal and Human Trials

The Maleae tribe consists of over one thousand species, including many well-known polyphenol-containing fruit crops with wide-ranging biological properties, e.g., apples (Malus), chokeberries (Aronia), pears (Pyrus), quinces (Cydonia, Chaenomeles), saskatoon (Amelanchier), loquats (Eriobotrya), medlars (Mespilus), rowans (Sorbus), and hawthorns (Crataegus). Considering the current interest in the concept of functional foods and the still-insufficient methods of diabetes management, the anti-diabetic potential of fruits has been studied intensively, including those of the Maleae tribe. This paper is the first comprehensive overview of this selected topic, covering articles published from 2000 to 2023 (131 articles in total). The first part of this review focuses on the potential mechanisms of action of fruits investigated so far (46 species), including their effects on tissue-specific glucose transport and the expression or activity of proteins in the insulin signalling pathway. The second part covers the phytocompounds responsible for particular fruits' activity-primarily polyphenols (e.g., flavonols, dihydrochalcones, proanthocyanidins, anthocyanins, phenolic acids), but also polysaccharides, triterpenes, and their additive and synergistic effects. In summary, fruits from the Maleae tribe seem promising as functional foods and anti-diabetic agents; however, their prospects for more expansive pro-health application require further research, especially more profound in vivo trials.

Effects of Dried Blueberry Pomace and Pineapple Pomace on Growth Performance and Meat Quality of Broiler Chickens

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of dried blueberry pomace (BP) and pineapple pomace (PP) on the growth performance and meat quality of broiler chickens. A total of 240 1-day-old Ross 308 broiler chickens were randomly divided into 3 groups, with 10 replicates per treatment group and 8 birds per replicate (4 males and 4 females). The three groups were the control (CON) group, the 3% BP group, and 3% PP group. The entire trial period lasted 42 days. The results show that the average daily feed intake, average daily gain, and feed-to-gain ratio of the BP group and the PP group were not significantly different from those in the CON group (p > 0.05). Adding BP to the diet significantly reduced the proportion of liver and giblets (p < 0.05). Adding PP to the diet significantly reduced the proportion of liver, while the proportion of gizzard significantly increased (p < 0.05). The pH^24h and L* of breast muscles were significantly lower in the PP group than in the CON group (p < 0.05). The water-holding capacity of the leg muscles in the BP group and the PP group was significantly lower than that in the CON group (p < 0.05). The crude protein content of breast muscle and the ether extract content of leg muscle in the BP group were significantly lower than those in the CON group (p < 0.05). In conclusion, the addition of 3% BP and PP to broiler chickens' diets had no adverse effects on growth performance or meat quality.

Advances in apple packaging: a review

Apple (Malus domestica) belongs to the family Rosaceae. It is one of the most commonly cultivated fruit in all temperate zones of the world and holds an equally important place in the global economy. Apple is a climacteric fruit and undergoes metabolic changes even after the harvest and thus prone to post-harvest losses. The packaging of apples plays an important role in extending the shelf life of the apples and also maintains the quality during distribution and transport. The prime role of packaging is to contain the food commodity and protect the enclosed product from external damage. But other functions such as traceability, convenience and temper evidence are of secondary importance. Different packaging techniques are employed for the packaging of apples which include both conventional (wooden boxes, corrugated fiber boxes, crates) and non-conventional packaging like modified atmosphere packaging (MAP), active packaging, edible coatings, etc.

Membrane-processed honey samples for pollen characterization with health benefits

Better processing techniques must be utilized widely due to the rising demand for honey. The most common honey processing techniques are applied to melissopalynomorphs to check the quality and quantity of valuable honey using microporous ultrafiltration membranes. It is essential to have the ability to selectively filter out sugars from honey using ultrafiltration. This study authenticated 24 honey samples using membrane reactors ultrafiltration protocol to describe the pollen spectrum of dominant vegetation. The purpose of this study was also to explore nutritional benefits as well as the active phytochemical constituents of honey samples. Honey samples were collected and labeled Acacia, Eucalyptus, and Ziziphus species based on plant resources provided by local beekeepers. A variety of honeybee flora was collected around the apiaries between 2020 and 2021. Honey analysis revealed that the pollen extraction of 24 bee foraging species belonging to 14 families. The honey membrane technology verified the identities of honey and nectar sources. Also, pollen identified using honey ultrafiltration membranes revealed dominant resources: Acacia spp. (69%), Eucalyptus spp. (52%) and Ziziphus spp. Honey filtration using a membrane technology classified 14 samples as unifloral, represented by six dominant pollen types. The absolute pollen count in the honey sample revealed that 58.33% (n = 14) belong to Maurizio's class I. Scanning ultrasculpturing showed diverse exine patterns: reticulate, psilate, scabrate-verrucate, scabrate-gemmate, granulate, perforate, microechinate, microreticulate, and regulate to fossulate for correct identification of honey pollen types. Honey ultrafiltration should be utilized to validate the botanical sources of honey and trace their biogeographic authenticity. Thus, it is imperative to look at the alternative useful method to identify the botanical origin of filtered honey. It is critical to separate honey from adulteration by a standardized protocol. Membrane technology has yielded significant outcomes in the purification of honey.

Identification of Natural Compounds of the Apple as Inhibitors against Cholinesterase for the Treatment of Alzheimer's Disease: An In Silico Molecular Docking Simulation and ADMET Study

Alzheimer's disease (AD), the most common type of dementia in older people, causes neurological problems associated with memory and thinking. The key enzymes involved in Alzheimer's disease pathways are acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE). Because of this, there is a lot of interest in finding new AChE inhibitors. Among compounds that are not alkaloids, flavonoids have stood out as good candidates. The apple fruit, Malus domestica (Rosaceae), is second only to cranberries regarding total phenolic compound concentration. Computational tools and biological databases were used to investigate enzymes and natural compounds. Molecular docking techniques were used to analyze the interactions of natural compounds of the apple with enzymes involved in the central nervous system (CNS), acetylcholinesterase, and butyrylcholinesterase, followed by binding affinity calculations using the AutoDock tool. The molecular docking results revealed that CID: 107905 exhibited the best interactions with AChE, with a binding affinity of -12.2 kcal/mol, and CID: 163103561 showed the highest binding affinity with BuChE, i.e., -11.2 kcal/mol. Importantly, it was observed that amino acid residue Trp286 of AChE was involved in hydrogen bond formation, Van Der Walls interactions, and Pi-Sigma/Pi-Pi interactions in the studied complexes. Moreover, the results of the Molecular Dynamics Simulation (MDS) analysis indicated interaction stability. This study shows that CID: 12000657 could be used as an AChE inhibitor and CID: 135398658 as a BuChE inhibitor to treat Alzheimer's disease and other neurological disorders.

Saponins of Selected Triterpenoids as Potential Therapeutic Agents: A Review

Saponins represent important natural derivatives of plant triterpenoids that are secondary plant metabolites. Saponins, also named glycoconjugates, are available both as natural and synthetic products. This review is focused on saponins of the oleanane, ursane, and lupane types of triterpenoids that include several plant triterpenoids displaying various important pharmacological effects. Additional convenient structural modifications of naturally-occurring plant products often result in enhancing the pharmacological effects of the parent natural structures. This is an important objective for all semisynthetic modifications of the reviewed plant products, and it is included in this review paper as well. The period covered by this review (2019–2022) is relatively short, mainly due to the existence of previously published review papers in recent years.

Performance and meat quality of broiler chickens fed with the addition of dried fruit pomace

The aim of the study was to evaluate the addition to feed of 3% of dried pomace from apples (AP), cherries (CH), and strawberries (ST) on the production results and meat quality of broiler chickens. Birds fed only the standard mixture for broiler chickens were the control group (CO). On d 42, a lower body weight of broiler chickens from group ST was noted compared to birds from group CO at P = 0.032. When feed conversion per 1 kg of weight gain and loss of broiler chickens was assessed, no differences between groups were shown (P ˃ 0.05). The leg muscles of AP and CH broiler chickens had less drip loss compared to the control group at P = 0.036. For other quality parameters of breast and leg muscles, no differences between groups were noted (P ˃ 0.05). It was found that the addition of dried apple and cherry pomace to the feed in the amount of 3% did not adversely affect the production results and the quality of broiler chicken meat. On the other hand, the addition to feed of dried pomace from strawberries reduced the final body weight of experimental birds. The most interesting additive turned out to be dried cherry pomace, because it improved slaughter efficiency, contributed to reducing drip loss of leg muscles, and influenced the lower level of crude fat in the breast muscles. However, further research should be carried out on the optimal concentration of CH in the diet of fattening chickens in order to achieve the most beneficial results.

Quantitative Traits of Interest in Apple Breeding and Their Implications for Selection

Apple breeding is a laborious and long-lasting process that requires qualified resources, land, time, and funds. In this study, more than 5000 F₁ apple hybrids from direct and testcrosses were analyzed. The results revealed how the phenotypic expression of the main quantitative traits of interest assessed in five half-sib families was controlled by the additive genetic effects and by non-additive effects of dominance and epistasis. The statistical number of hybrids required to ensure efficient selection increased exponentially with the number of desirable traits. The minimum number of progenies required to obtain a hybrid with associated quantitative traits of agronomic interest was highly variable. For two independent traits essential in selection (fruit size and quality), but incorporated together in the same hybrid, the statistical number was between about 30 and 300. If three more cumulative traits were added (a large number of fruits per tree, resistance/tolerance to apple scab, and powdery mildew attack), the limits increased to between 1500 and 18,000. The study highlighted the need for new apple varieties due to the narrowing of the genetic diversity of the cultivated species and how the choice of parents used in hybridizations (as well as the objectives pursued in the selection) can increase the efficiency of apple breeding.

Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Compounds from Edible Plants with Anti-Cancer Activity and Their Potential Use as Drugs

Food is our daily companion, performing numerous beneficial functions for our bodies. Many of them can help to alleviate or prevent ailments and diseases. In this review, an extensive bibliographic search is conducted in various databases to update information on unprocessed foods with anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties that can aid in treating diseases such as cancer. The current state of knowledge on inflammatory processes involving some interleukins and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) is reviewed. As well as unprocessed foods, which may help reduce inflammation and oxidative stress, both of which are important factors in cancer development. Many studies are still needed to take full advantage of the food products we use daily.

Targeting Nrf2 and NF-κB Signaling Pathways in Cancer Prevention: The Role of Apple Phytochemicals

Plant secondary metabolites, known as phytochemicals, have recently gained much attention in light of the "circular economy", to reutilize waste products deriving from agriculture and food industry. Phytochemicals are known for their onco-preventive and chemoprotective effects, among several other beneficial properties. Apple phytochemicals have been extensively studied for their effectiveness in a wide range of diseases, cancer included. This review aims to provide a thorough overview of the main studies reported in the literature concerning apple phytochemicals, mostly polyphenols, in cancer prevention. Although there are many different mechanisms targeted by phytochemicals, the Nrf2 and NF-κB signaling pathways are the ones this review will be focused on, highlighting also the existing crosstalk between these two systems.

An Overview of Cardiotonic Medicinal Plants from the Perspective of Iranian Traditional Medicine

Context: Cardiovascular disorders are a leading cause of mortality and morbidity worldwide, especially in people with diabetes. Due to synthetic drugs’ adverse effects, new medicines are needed. Evidence Acquisition: Iranian traditional medicine (ITM) is one of the oldest medical systems. In this article, we first introduce a list of cardiotonic medicinal plants based on ITM. Then we review the cardio-related effects of these plants based on electronic databases. Results: Among the introduced medicinal plants from ITM, Phyllanthus emblica L., Rosa canina L., Ocimum basilicum L., and Melissa officinalis L. have cardiotonic effects. Also, P. emblica, O. basilicum, M. officinalis, Citrus medica L., Malus domestica Borkh., Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton, and R. canina have cardioprotective effects and possess several biological activities that reduce cardiovascular disease risk factors. Conclusions: The cardiotonic medicinal plants based on ITM have excellent value; several pharmacological studies have proved some of their cardioprotective and cardiotonic effects. The other plants’ potential for improving the heart’s contractile power as a cardiotonic drug must be evaluated in further pharmacological and clinical studies.

A Review of Pistacia lentiscus Polyphenols: Chemical Diversity and Pharmacological Activities

Pistacia lentiscus (lentisk) is a plant species of the Anacardiaceae family. It is a medicinal plant that grows wild in the Mediterranean region. This review aims to update the existing knowledge regarding P. lentiscus polyphenols by consulting references dated from 1996 to 2022. The data are organized and analyzed as follows: (i) to show the chemical diversity of phenolic products from P. lentiscus; (ii) to summarize the variability in phenolic composition and quantity; this could be attributed to plant origin, environmental conditions, phenological stage, and the polarity of the extraction solvents; (iii) to present the pharmacological properties in agreement with the traditional uses of this plant; and (iv) to demonstrate the correlation between the chemical profile and the pharmacological effect. Various compositions were observed, including phenolic acids, flavonoid glycosides, anthocyanins, catechins, and their derivatives. The biological and therapeutic potentials of lentisk extracts have been evaluated in terms of antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory activities. Most of these activities are related to the phenolic composition of this plant. The content of this review will undoubtedly contribute to the choice of techniques for isolating the different bioactive molecules contained in the P. lentiscus. It is also of significance for the potential development of a micro-industrial sector based on the valorization of lentisk polyphenols.

Bioactive potential of tropical highland apple (Malus domestica cv. Anna) crude extract: opportunities for food waste revalorization

Background

The third most produced fruit crop in the world, apples (Malus domestica Borkh) are one of the most accessible and widely consumed fruits, with known benefits for human health. Although they are a temperate crop, apple cultivation has been successfully implemented in lower latitudes. Tropical highland Costa Rican apples (cv. Anna) have shown high total polyphenol content, and cytotoxic effects against human cancer cell lines. However, most reports originate from purified fractions, obtained using methods which are not easily translatable for commercial applications. In this study, we prepared a polyphenol-rich bioactive extract from Costa Rican Anna apples, using food-grade solvents and simple techniques, aiming towards easy translation of the extraction protocols to small local producers.

Results

The whole apple crude extract (AE) was investigated for its total polyphenol content, general phytochemical profile, cytotoxicity against human breast and lung cancer cells, and regenerative potential in murine skin fibroblast monolayers. The AE showed total polyphenol amounts comparable to that obtained using more refined extractions in previous studies, and exhibited cytotoxic activity against human breast (MCF7) and lung (NCI-H460) cancer cells, and inhibition of cell proliferation in the scratch-wound-healing assay.

Conclusions

Food-grade simple protocols were successful for obtaining a polyphenol-rich bioactive extract from Costa Rican Anna apples. The easy-to-implement extraction protocols and biochemical tests could provide a source of bioactive phytochemicals to be used in circular production systems.

Empire Apple (Malus domestica) Juice, Pomace, and Pulp Modulate Intestinal Functionality, Morphology, and Bacterial Populations In Vivo (Gallus gallus)

Approximately $20 billion of apple sales are generated annually in the United States. With an estimated 5 million tons produced yearly in the U.S. within the last decade, apple consumption is considered ubiquitous. Apples are comprised of bioactive constituents such as phytochemicals and prebiotics that may potentiate intestinal health and the gut microbiome. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of Empire apple juice, pomace, and pulp soluble extracts on intestinal functionality, morphology, and the microbiome in vivo (Gallus gallus). There were five treatment groups: non-injected (NI); 18 MΩ H2O (H2O); 6% apple juice (AJ); 6% apple pomace (APo); 6% apple pulp (APu). The eggs were treated by intra-amniotic administration of the samples on day 17 of incubation. After hatching, the blood, tissue, and cecum samples were collected for further analyses—including duodenal histomorphology, hepatic and duodenal mRNA expression, and cecal bacterial populations. Crypt depth was significantly (p < 0.5) shortest in AJ when compared to APo and APu. APo and APu soluble extracts significantly improved villi surface area compared to NI and H2O control groups. The highest count of Paneth cells per crypt was observed in APo as compared to all groups. In addition, the expression of brush border membrane micronutrient metabolism and functional proteins varied between treatments. Lastly, Lactobacillus cecal microbial populations increased significantly in the AJ group, while AJ, APu, and APu increased the abundance of Clostridium (p < 0.5). Ultimately, these results indicate the potential of Empire apple pomace to improve host intestinal health and the gut microbiome.

Selected plant triterpenoids and their amide derivatives in cancer treatment: A review

Medicinal plants have been used to treat different diseases throughout the human history namely in traditional medicine. Most of the plants mentioned in this review article belong among them, including those that are widely spread in the nature, counted frequently to be food and nutrition plants and producing pharmacologically important secondary metabolites. Triterpenoids represent an important group of plant secondary metabolites displaying emerging pharmacological importance. This review article sheds light on four selected triterpenoids, oleanolic, ursolic, betulinic and platanic acid, and on their amide derivatives as important natural or semisynthetic agents in cancer treatment, and, in part, in pathogenic microbe treatment. A literature search was made in the Web of Science for the given key words covering the required area of secondary plant metabolites and their amide derivatives. The most recently published findings on the biological activity of the selected triterpenoids, and on the structures and biological activity of their relevant amide derivatives have been summarized therein. Mainly anti-cancer effects, and, in part, antimicrobial and other effects of the four selected triterpenoids and their amide derivatives have also been reviewed. A comparison of the effects of the parent plant products and those of their amide derivatives has been made.

Enzymatic browning in apple products and its inhibition treatments: A comprehensive review

Apple (Malus domestica) is widely consumed by consumers from various regions. It contains a high number of phenolic compounds (majorly hydroxybenzoic acids, hydroxycinnamic acids, flavanols, flavonols, dihydrochalcones, and anthocyanins) and antioxidant activity, which are beneficial for human health. The trends on healthy and fresh food have driven the food industry to produce minimally processed apple, such as fresh-cut, puree, juice, and so on without degrading the quality of products. Enzymatic browning is one of the problems found in minimally processed apple as it causes the undesirable dark color as well as the degradation of phenolics and antioxidant activity, which then reduces the health benefits of apple. Proper inhibition is needed to maintain the quality of minimally processed apple with minimal changes in sensory properties. This review summarizes the inhibition of enzymatic browning of apple products based on recent studies using the conventional and nonconventional processing, as well as using synthetic and natural antibrowning agents. Nonconventional processing and the use of natural antibrowning agents can be used as promising treatments to prevent enzymatic browning in minimally processed apple products. Combination of 2-3 treatments can improve the effective inhibition of enzymatic browning. Further studies, such on as other potential natural antibrowning agents and their mechanisms of action, should be conducted.

Apple Polyphenol Diet Extends Lifespan, Slows down Mitotic Rate and Reduces Morphometric Parameters in Drosophila Melanogaster: A Comparison between Three Different Apple Cultivars

Plant-derived polyphenols exhibit beneficial effects on physiological and pathological processes, including cancer and neurodegenerative disorders, mainly because of their antioxidant activity. Apples are highly enriched in these compounds, mainly in their peel. The Tuscia Red (TR) apple variety exhibits the peculiar characteristic of depositing high quantities of polyphenols in the pulp, the edible part of the fruit. Since polyphenols, as any natural product, cannot be considered a panacea per se, in this paper, we propose to assess the biological effects of TR flesh extracts, in comparison with two commercial varieties, in a model system, the insect Drosophila melanogaster, largely recognized as a reliable system to test the in vivo effects of natural and synthetic compounds. We performed a comparative, qualitative and quantitative analysis of the polyphenol compositions of the three cultivars and found that TR flesh shows the highest content of polyphenols, and markedly, anthocyanins. Then, we focused on their effects on a panel of physiological, morphometrical, cellular and behavioral phenotypes in wild-type D. melanogaster. We found that all the apple polyphenol extracts showed dose-dependent effects on most of the phenotypes we considered. Remarkably, all the varieties induced a strong relenting of the cell division rate.

Polyphenols from Thinned Young Apples: HPLC-HRMS Profile and Evaluation of Their Anti-Oxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Activities by Proteomic Studies

The qualitative profile of thinned apple polyphenols (TAP) fraction (≈24% of polyphenols) obtained by purification through absorbent resin was fully investigated by LC-HRMS in positive and negative ion mode and using ESI source. A total of 68 polyphenols were identified belonging to six different classes: flavanols, flavonols, dihydrochalchones, flavanones, flavones and organic and phenolic acids. The antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities were then investigated in cell models with gene reporter for NRF2 and NF-κB and by quantitative proteomic (label-free and SILAC) approaches. TAP dose-dependently activated NRF2 and in the same concentration range (10–250 µg/mL) inhibited NF-κB nuclear translocation induced by TNF-α and IL-1α as pro-inflammatory promoters. Proteomic studies elucidated the molecular pathways evoked by TAP treatment: activation of the NRF2 signaling pathway, which in turn up-regulates protective oxidoreductases and their nucleophilic substrates such as GSH and NADPH, the latter resulting from the up-regulation of the pentose phosphate pathway. The increase in the enzymatic antioxidant cellular activity together with the up-regulation of the heme-oxygenase would explain the anti-inflammatory effect of TAP. The results suggest that thinned apples can be considered as a valuable source of apple polyphenols to be used in health care products to prevent/treat oxidative and inflammatory chronic conditions.

Technology for Apple Pomace Utilization within a Sustainable Development Policy Framework

The aim of this study was to develop a concept, within the framework of sustainable agriculture, for utilizing apple pomace as a valuable raw material in food production. The proposal includes a description of the production technology of four food products together with the characteristics of their chemical composition, wholesome compounds, and physical properties. These new products were developed on the basis of apple pomace and wheat bran. In the developed technology, heat treatment in a convection oven, treatment with infrared radiation, and two types of barothermic treatments, i.e., extrusion and granulation, were implemented as the principal methods. All of the proposed technologies allow for the use of pomace for the production of food products to be made directly in the home plant and are relatively easy to implement in small processing facilities. It was found that the product consisting of fragmented apple pomace (mass fraction: 75%) and wheat bran (mass fraction: 25%), obtained using infrared radiation treatment, had the greatest value in terms of wholesome characteristics among the products obtained. This product had high contents of fiber and simple sugars, the highest content of polyphenols among the obtained products, and the ability to scavenge free radicals. It was also the only one with partially preserved vitamin C. The proposed method for processing pomace for food is in line with the sustainable agriculture movement.

Analysis of Apple Fruit (Malus × domestica Borkh.) Quality Attributes Obtained from Organic and Integrated Production Systems

The aim of this study was to compare total phenolic content (TPC), radical-scavenging activity (RSA), total anthocyanin content (TAC), sugar and polyphenolic profiles of two apple cultivars (‘Discovery’ and ‘Red Aroma Orelind’) from organic and integrated production systems in climatic conditions of Western Norway. Sixteen sugars and four sugar alcohols and 19 polyphenols were found in the peel, but less polyphenols were detected in the pulp. The peel of both apples and in both production systems had significantly higher TPC and RSA than the pulp. The peel from integrated apples had higher TPC than the peel from organic apples, while organic apples had higher TAC than the integrated. Sucrose and glucose levels were higher in organic apples; fructose was cultivar dependent while minor sugars were higher in integrated fruits. The most abundant polyphenolic compound in the peel of the tested cultivars was quercetin 3-O-galactoside, while chlorogenic acid was most abundant in the pulp. Regarding polyphenols, phloretin, phloridzin, protocatechuic acid, baicalein and naringenin were higher in organic apple, while quercetin 3-O-galactoside, kaempferol 3-O-glucoside, chlorogenic acid and syringic acid was higher in integrated fruits. In conclusion, organic ‘Discovery’ and integrated ‘Red Aroma Orelind’ had higher bioavailability of health related compounds from the peel and the pulp.

Metabolic and Cardiovascular Benefits of Apple and Apple-Derived Products: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials

Background

Quantitative evidence of the metabolic and cardiovascular effects of apples (Malus domestica) is lacking in interventional studies. This study aimed to summarize the available evidence of the beneficial effects of apples and apple-derived products (ADPs) on metabolic and cardiovascular markers.

Methods

Peer-reviewed randomized controlled trials (RCTs) were identified from four databases on May 3, 2021 and regularly updated until the end of May 2021. Demographic characteristics, intervention types, and evaluation parameters were extracted. A meta-analysis on the mean difference of change scores was conducted on commonly presented outcomes in the RCTs.

Results

The metabolic and cardiovascular effects of diverse regimens, including whole apple, apple extract, and apple juice, were examined in 18 eligible RCTs. Nine common evaluation outcomes were eventually introduced to the meta-analysis, including total cholesterol (TC), low-density lipoprotein (LDL), high-density lipoprotein (HDL), triglyceride, glucose, insulin, C-reactive protein, and systolic/diastolic blood pressures. The levels of TC (-2.69 mg/dL; 95% CI: -5.43, 0.04 mg/dL) and LDL (-2.80 mg/dL; 95% CI: -5.78, 0.17 mg/dL) showed a non-significant decreasing tendency after at least a week of apple consumption. Further subgroup analysis, particularly, a comparison with placebo as a control, showed a significant reduction in TC and LDL levels. When stratified by the baseline level, subjects with high TC and LDL level were shown to have more benefits from the apple intake. Intriguingly, apple and ADPs significantly reduced HDL levels to a small extent (-1.04 mg/dL; 95% CI: -1.79, -0.29 mg/dL). The other markers were mostly unaffected by the intervention.

Conclusion

Our investigation revealed that apples could improve blood cholesterol levels.

Systematic Review Registration

[https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/], identifier [CRD42020215977].

Red-Fleshed Apples Rich in Anthocyanins and White-Fleshed Apples Modulate the Aorta and Heart Proteome in Hypercholesterolaemic Rats: The AppleCOR Study

The impact of a red-fleshed apple (RFA) rich in anthocyanins (ACNs), a white-fleshed apple (WFA) without ACNs, and an extract infusion from Aronia fruit (AI) equivalent in dose of cyanidin-3-O-galactoside (main ACN) as RFA was determined by the proteome profile of aorta and heart as key cardiovascular tissues. Hypercholesterolaemic Wistar rats were separated into six groups (n = 6/group; three males and three females) and the proteomic profiles were analyzed using nanoliquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. No adverse events were reported and all products were well tolerated. RFA downregulated C1QB and CFP in aorta and CRP in heart. WFA downregulated C1QB and CFP in aorta and C9 and C3 in aorta and heart, among other proteins. AI downregulated PRKACA, IQGAP1, and HSP90AB1 related to cellular signaling. Thus, both apples showed an anti-inflammatory effect through the complement system, while RFA reduced CRP. Regardless of the ACN content, an apple matrix effect was observed that involved different bioactive components, and inflammatory proteins were reduced.

HRMS Characterization, Antioxidant and Cytotoxic Activities of Polyphenols in Malus domestica Cultivars from Costa Rica

There is increasing interest in research into fruits as sources of secondary metabolites because of their potential bioactivities. In this study, the phenolic profiles of Malus domestica Anna and Jonagold cultivars from Costa Rica were determined by Ultra Performance Liquid Chromatography coupled with High Resolution Mass Spectrometry (HRMS) using a quadrupole-time-of-flight analyzer (UPLC-QTOF-ESI MS), on enriched-phenolic extracts from skins and flesh, obtained through Pressurized Liquid Extraction (PLE). In total, 48 different phenolic compounds were identified in the skin and flesh extracts, comprising 17 flavan-3-ols, 12 flavonoids, 4 chalcones, 1 glycosylated isoprenoid and 14 hydroxycinnamic acids and derivatives. Among extracts, the flesh of Jonagold exhibits a larger number of polyphenols and is especially rich in procyanidin trimers, tetramers and pentamers. Evaluating total phenolic content (TPC) and antioxidant activities using ORAC and DPPH procedures yields higher values for this extract (608.8 mg GAE/g extract; 14.80 mmol TE/g extract and IC50 = 3.96 µg/mL, respectively). In addition, cytotoxicity evaluated against SW620 colon cancer cell lines and AGS gastric cancer cell lines also delivered better effects for Jonagold flesh (IC50 = 62.4 and 60.0 µg/mL, respectively). In addition, a significant negative correlation (p < 0.05) was found between TPC and cytotoxicity values against SW620 and AGS adenocarcinoma (r = -0.908, and -0.902, respectively). Furthermore, a significant negative correlation (p < 0.05) was also found between the number of procyanidins and both antioxidant activities and cytotoxicity towards SW620 (r = -0.978) and AGS (r = -0.894) cell lines. These results align with Jonagold flesh exhibiting the highest abundance in procyanidin oligomers and yielding better cytotoxic and antioxidant results. In sum, our findings suggest the need for further studies on these Costa Rican apple extracts-and particularly on the extracts from Jonagold flesh-to increase the knowledge on their potential benefits for health.

Ca' Granda, Hortus simplicium: Restoring an Ancient Medicinal Garden of XV-XIX Century in Milan (Italy)

This work is based on the study of 150 majolica vases dated back to the mid XVII century that once preserved medicinal remedies prepared in the ancient Pharmacy annexed to the Ospedale Maggiore Ca' Granda in Milan (Lombardy, Italy). The Hortus simplicium was created in 1641 as a source of plant-based ingredients for those remedies. The main objective of the present work is to lay the knowledge base for the restoration of the ancient Garden for educational and informative purposes. Therefore, the following complementary phases were carried out: (i) the analysis of the inscriptions on the jars, along with the survey on historical medical texts, allowing for the positive identification of the plant ingredients of the remedies and their ancient use as medicines; (ii) the bibliographic research in modern pharmacological literature in order to validate or refute the historical uses; (iii) the realization of the checklist of plants potentially present in cultivation at the ancient Garden, concurrently with the comparison with the results of a previous in situ archaeobotanical study concerning pollen grains. For the species selection, considerations were made also regarding drug amounts in the remedies and pedoclimatic conditions of the study area. Out of the 150 vases, 108 contained plant-based remedies, corresponding to 148 taxa. The remedies mainly treated gastrointestinal and respiratory disorders. At least one of the medicinal uses was validated in scientific literature for 112 out of the 148 examined species. Finally, a checklist of 40 taxa, presumably hosted in the Hortus simplicium, was assembled.

Traditional ancient Egyptian medicine: A review

The ancient Egyptians practiced medicine with highly professional methods. They had advanced knowledge of anatomy and surgery. Also, they treated a lot of diseases including dental, gynecological, gastrointestinal, and urinary disorders. They could diagnose diabetes and cancer. The used therapeutics extended from different plants to include several animal products and minerals. Some of these plants are still used in the present day. Fortunately, they documented their life details by carving on stone, clay, or papyri. Although a lot of these records have been lost or destroyed, the surviving documents represent a huge source of knowledge in different scientific aspects including medicine. This review article is an attempt to understand some information about traditional medicine in ancient Egypt, we will look closely at some basics, sources of information of Egyptian medicine in addition to common treated diseases and therapeutics in this great civilization.

THE POTENTIAL OF URONIDE HYDROCOLLOIDS FOR THE FORMATION OF SENSORY CHARACTERISTICS OF HEALTH PRODUCTS FROM HYDROBIONTS

The article presents the theoretical basis and practical aspects of the using of binary compositions of uronid polysaccharides in the technology of culinary products from aquatic organisms in jelly fillings. The relevance of the composition of natural high molecular weight polysaccharides, such as sodium alginate and low-esterified pectin, to promote the improvement of sensory characteristics of culinary products from aquatic organisms in the menu of fish restaurants is shown. The objectives of the study were to obtain a jelly filling of viscous consistency, followed by the formation of a stable, elastic gel for using in the technology of aquatic products. Obtaining a jelly filling involves det-ermining the parameters of the preliminary preparation of hydrocolloids; study of the influence of technological par-ameters on the sensory characteristics of the gel. Creating a dry mixture of sodium alginate and low-esterified pectin with salt and sugar was necessary to ensure the dispersion of particles of dry hydrocolloid powders to prevent sticking when swelling in water at a temperature of 18-20 ° C for 15 minutes. Intense swelling of the mixture occurs in the first 10 minutes of hydration.The degree of swelling reaches 5.8%; further increase in time has almost no effect on the swe-lling process. The swelling kinetics of the hydrocolloid mixture was evaluated by determining the tangent of the angle of inclination tangent to the curve describing the degree of swelling. The rational mass fraction of calcium ions for the formation of a transparent gel of stable, homogeneous, elastic consistency, which is 0.3-0.4% of the 10% solution of calcium chloride, was experimentally established. It was studied that dispersions with a mass fraction of a mixture of alginate: low-esterified pectin substances - 1.8% have a viscous consistency with a dynamic viscosity of less than 0.94 Pa • s, which is important for the implementation of technological operations of transportation and packaging of jelly fillings. The conditions and speed of gelation, which provide the finished culinary products with high sensory cha-racteristics and elastic consistency due to the regulated melting temperature, which is provided by the composition of uronide hydrocolloids, have been studied. It was found that the strength of the gel more than 140 g forms a mixture of hydrocolloids with a mass fraction of from 1.6 to 1.8%.

Combined Profiling of Transcriptome and DNA Methylome Reveal Genes Involved in Accumulation of Soluble Sugars and Organic Acid in Apple Fruits

Organic acids and soluble sugars are the major determinants of fruit organoleptic quality. Additionally, DNA methylation has crucial regulatory effects on various processes. However, the epigenetic modifications in the regulation of organic acid and soluble sugar accumulation in apple fruits remain uncharacterized. In this study, DNA methylation and the transcriptome were compared between ‘Honeycrisp’ and ‘Qinguan’ mature fruits, which differ significantly regarding soluble sugar and organic acid contents. In both ‘Honeycrisp’ and ‘Qinguan’ mature fruits, the CG context had the highest level of DNA methylation, and then CHG and CHH contexts. The number and distribution of differentially methylated regions (DMRs) varied among genic regions and transposable elements. The DNA methylation levels in all three contexts in the DMRs were significantly higher in ‘Honeycrisp’ mature fruits than in ‘Qinguan’ mature fruits. A combined methylation and transcriptome analysis revealed a negative correlation between methylation levels and gene expression in DMRs in promoters and gene bodies in the CG and CHG contexts and in gene bodies in the CHH context. Two candidate genes (MdTSTa and MdMa11), which encode tonoplast-localized proteins, potentially associated with fruit soluble sugar contents and acidity were identified based on expression and DNA methylation levels. Overexpression of MdTSTa in tomato increased the fruit soluble sugar content. Moreover, transient expression of MdMa11 in tobacco leaves significantly decreased the pH value. Our results reflect the diversity in epigenetic modifications influencing gene expression and will facilitate further elucidating the complex mechanism underlying fruit soluble sugar and organic acid accumulation.

Variation of Triterpenes in Apples Stored in a Controlled Atmosphere

Apples are seasonal fruits, and thus after harvesting apples of optimal picking maturity, it is important to prepare them properly for storage and to ensure proper storage conditions in order to minimize changes in the chemical composition and commercial quality of the apples. We studied the quantitative composition of triterpenic compounds in the whole apple, apple peel and apple flesh samples before placing them in the controlled atmosphere (CA) chambers, and at the end of the experiment, 8 months later. HPLC analysis showed that highest total amount of triterpenic compounds (1.99 ± 0.01 mg g^-1) was found in the whole apple samples of the 'Spartan' cultivar stored under variant VIII (O₂-20%, CO₂-3%, N₂-77%) conditions. Meanwhile, the highest amount of triterpenic compounds (11.66 ± 0.72 mg g^-1) was determined in the apple peel samples of the 'Auksis' cultivar stored under variant II (O₂-5%, CO₂-1%, N₂-94%) conditions. In the apple peel samples of the 'Auksis' cultivar stored under variant I (O₂-21%, CO₂-0.03%, N₂-78.97%) conditions, the amount of individual triterpenic compounds (ursolic, oleanolic, corosolic, and betulinic acids) significantly decreased compared with amount determined before the storage. Therefore, in the apple flesh samples determined triterpenic compounds are less stable during the storage under controlled atmosphere conditions compared with triterpenic compounds determined in the whole apple and apple peel samples.

Biodegradable Chitosan Films with ZnO Nanoparticles Synthesized Using Food Industry By-Products—Production and Characterization

This work aimed to produce bionanocomposites of chitosan incorporated with zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) synthesized using food industry by-products and to characterize them. Such nanoparticles are highlighted due to their low cost, antimicrobial activity, accessibility, and sustainability synthesis. Four different levels of ZnO NPs (0, 0.5, 1.0, and 2.0% w/w of chitosan) were tested, and the bionanocomposites were characterized in terms of their hydrophobicity, mechanical, optical, and barrier properties. Overall, the incorporation of ZnO NPs changed the composites from brittle to ductile, with enhanced elongation at break and reduced Young Modulus and tensile strength. Thus, ZnO NPs acted as plasticizer, turning the films more flexible, due to the presence of organic compounds on the NPs. This also favored permeability of oxygen and of water vapor, but the good barrier properties were maintained. Optical properties did not change statistically with the ZnO NPs incorporation. Thus, the characterization presented in this paper may contribute to support a decision on the choice of the material’s final application.

Metabolomic Profiling and Antioxidant Activity of Fruits Representing Diverse Apple and Pear Cultivars

The false fruits of apple (Malus domestica) and pear (Pyrus communis) are consumed all over the world, contributing to the dietary intake of health-promoting antioxidant phytochemicals. For example, polyphenols confer many beneficial effects (according to their chemical structure, bioavailability, and absorption efficiency in the gut) and the consumption of polyphenol-rich apple and pear fruits may therefore reduce the risk of some diseases. However, the content of such molecules is highly dependent on the specific fruit cultivar. To examine this metabolic diversity in detail, we used metabolomic analysis (NMR and HPLC-DAD/MS) to profile the metabolome of six apple and five pear cultivars. We also determined the antioxidant capacity of the extracts (FRAP assay) and correlated this with the metabolomic composition and abundance of specific metabolites. We observed the cultivar-specific accumulation of sugars, amino acids, malic acid, and various polyphenols, which was also related to the growing season for some cultivars. We found that the ancient Italian apple Pom Prussian was enriched for chlorogenic acid as well as more characteristic polyphenols (phloretin derivatives), the pear cultivar Abate Fetel was low in sucrose, and both cultivars displayed high in vitro antioxidant activity. These cultivars may, therefore, be particularly attractive to health-conscious consumers.

A Polyphenol Enriched Variety of Apple Alters Circulating Immune Cell Gene Expression and Faecal Microbiota Composition in Healthy Adults: A Randomized Controlled Trial

Polyphenols within fruits and vegetables may contribute to health benefits due to their consumption, with the anthocyanin sub-set also adding colour. The Lemonade™ apple variety has green skin and white flesh, with low anthocyanin content, while some apple varieties have high anthocyanin content in both the skin and flesh. Effects of red compared with white-fleshed apples were studied in healthy human subjects in a randomized, placebo-controlled, cross-over intervention trial. Twenty-five healthy subjects consumed dried daily portions of the red-fleshed or placebo (white-fleshed) apple for two weeks, followed by one-week washout and further two-week crossover period. During the study, volunteers provided faecal samples for microbiota composition analysis and blood samples for peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) gene expression analysis. Subtle differences were observed in the faecal microbiota of subjects that were fed the different apples, with significant (p < 0.05) reductions in relative abundances of Streptococcus, Ruminococcus, Blautia, and Roseburia, and increased relative abundances of Sutterella, Butyricicoccus, and Lactobacillus in subjects after consuming the red apple. Changes in PBMC gene expression showed 18 mRNA transcripts were differentially expressed between the two groups, of which 16 were immunoglobulin related genes. Pathway analysis showed that these genes had roles in pathways such as immunoglobulin production, B cell-mediated immunity, complement activation, and phagocytosis. In conclusion, this study shows that anthocyanin-rich apples may influence immune function compared to control apples, with changes potentially associated with differences in the faecal microbiota.

What Does the Taste System Tell Us About the Nutritional Composition and Toxicity of Foods?

One of the distinctive features of the human taste system is that it categorizes food into a few taste qualities - e.g., sweet, salty, sour, bitter, and umami. Here, I examined the functional significance of these taste qualities by asking what they tell us about the nutritional composition and toxicity of foods. I collected published data on the composition of raw and unprocessed foods - i.e., fruits, endosperm tissues, starchy foods, mushrooms, and meats. Sweet taste is thought to help identify foods with a high caloric or micronutrient density. However, the sweetest foods (fruits) had a relatively modest caloric density and low micronutrient density, whereas the blandest foods (endosperm tissues and meats) had a relatively high caloric and high micronutrient density. Salty taste is thought to be a proxy for foods high in sodium. Sodium levels were higher in meats than in most plant materials, but raw meats lack a salient salty taste. Sour taste (a measure of acidity) is thought to signify dangerous or spoiled foods. While this may be the case, it is notable that most ripe fruits are acidic. Umami taste is thought to reflect the protein content of food. I found that free L-glutamate (the prototypical umami tastant) concentration varies independently of protein content in foods. Bitter taste is thought to help identify poisonous foods, but many nutritious plant materials taste bitter. Fat taste is thought to help identify triglyceride-rich foods, but the role of taste versus mouthfeel in the attraction to fatty foods is unresolved. These findings indicate that the taste system provides incomplete or, in some cases, misleading information about the nutritional content and toxicity of foods. This may explain why inputs from the taste system are merged with inputs from the other cephalic senses and intestinal nutrient-sensing systems. By doing so, we create a more complete sensory representation and nutritional evaluation of foods.