Mechanically Reinforced Gelatin Hydrogels by Introducing Slidable Supramolecular Cross-Linkers

A Review of Modified Gelatin: Physicochemical Properties, Modification Methods, and Applications in the Food Field

Gelatin is a significant multifunctional biopolymer that is widely utilized as a component in food, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics. Numerous functional qualities are displayed by gelatin, such as its exceptional film-forming ability, gelling qualities, foaming and emulsifying qualities, biocompatibility and biodegradable qualities. Due to its unique structural, physicochemical, and biochemical characteristics, which enhance nutritional content and health benefits as well as the stability, consistency, and elasticity of food products, gelatin is utilized extensively in the food business. Additionally, gelatin has demonstrated excellent performance in encapsulating, delivering, and releasing active ingredients. Gelatin's various modifications, such as chemical, enzymatic, and physical processes, were analyzed to assess their impact on gelatin structures and characteristics. Hopefully, gelatin will be more widely used in various applications after modification using suitable methods.

Application of gelatin-based composites in bone tissue engineering

Natural bone tissue has the certain function of self-regeneration and repair, but it is difficult to repair large bone damage. Recently, although autologous bone grafting is the "gold standard" for improving bone repair, it has high cost, few donor sources. Besides, allogeneic bone grafting causes greater immune reactions, which hardly meet clinical needs. The bone tissue engineering (BTE) has been developed to promote bone repair. Gelatin, due to its biocompatibility, receives a great deal of attention in the BTE research field. However, the disadvantages of natural gelatin are poor mechanical properties and single structural property. With the development of BTE, gelatin is often used in combination with a range of natural, synthetic polymers, and inorganic materials to achieve synergistic effects for the complex physiological process of bone repair. The review delves into the fundamental structure and unique properties of gelatin, as well as the excellent properties necessary for bone scaffold materials. Then this review explores the application of modified gelatin three-dimensional (3D) scaffolds with various structures in bone repair, including 3D fiber scaffolds, hydrogels, and nanoparticles. In addition, the review focuses on the excellent efficacy of composite bone tissue scaffolds consisting of modified gelatin, various natural or synthetic polymeric materials, as well as bioactive ceramics and inorganic metallic/non-metallic materials in the repair of bone defects. The combination of these gelatin-based composite scaffolds provides new ideas for the design of scaffold materials for bone repair with good biosafety.

Nanomedicine in Neuroprotection, Neuroregeneration, and Blood-Brain Barrier Modulation: A Narrative Review

Nanomedicine is a newer, promising approach to promote neuroprotection, neuroregeneration, and modulation of the blood-brain barrier. This review includes the integration of various nanomaterials in neurological disorders. In addition, gelatin-based hydrogels, which have huge potential due to biocompatibility, maintenance of porosity, and enhanced neural process outgrowth, are reviewed. Chemical modification of these hydrogels, especially with guanidine moieties, has shown improved neuron viability and underscores tailored biomaterial design in neural applications. This review further discusses strategies to modulate the blood-brain barrier-a factor critically associated with the effective delivery of drugs to the central nervous system. These advances bring supportive solutions to the solving of neurological conditions and innovative therapies for their treatment. Nanomedicine, as applied to neuroscience, presents a significant leap forward in new therapeutic strategies that might help raise the treatment and management of neurological disorders to much better levels. Our aim was to summarize the current state-of-knowledge in this field.

Combined regenerative rehabilitation improves recovery following volumetric muscle loss injury in a rat model

Volumetric muscle loss (VML) injury causes irreversible deficits in muscle mass and function, often resulting in permanent disability. The current standard of care is physical therapy, but it is limited in mitigating functional deficits. We have previously optimized a rehabilitation technique using electrically stimulated eccentric contraction training (EST) that improved muscle mass, strength, and size in VML-injured rats. A biosponge scaffold composed of extracellular matrix proteins has previously enhanced muscle function postVML. This study aimed to determine whether combining a regenerative therapy (i.e., biosponge) with a novel rehabilitation technique (i.e., EST) could enhance recovery in a rat model of VML. A VML defect was created by removing ~20% of muscle mass from the tibialis anterior muscle in adult male Lewis rats. Experimental groups included VML-injured rats treated with biosponge with EST or biosponge alone (n = 6/group). EST was implemented 2 weeks postinjury at 150 Hz and was continued for 4 weeks. A linear increase in eccentric torque over 4 weeks showed the adaptability of the VML-injured muscle to EST. Combining biosponge with EST improved peak isometric torque by ~52% compared with biosponge treatment alone at 6 weeks postinjury. Application of EST increased MyoD gene expression and the percentage of large (>2000 μm2) type 2B myofibers but reduced fibrotic tissue deposition in VML-injured muscles. Together, these changes may provide the basis for improved torque production. This study demonstrates the potential for combined regenerative and rehabilitative therapy to improve muscle recovery following VML.

Acryloyl chitosan as a macro-crosslinker for freezing-resistant, self-healing and self-adhesive ionogels-based multicompetent flexible sensors

Here, a polysaccharide derivative acryloyl chitosan (AcCS) is exploited as macro-crosslinker to synthesize a novel ionogel poly (acrylic acid-co-1-Vinyl-3-butyl imidazolium chloride) (AA-IL/AcCS) via a one-pot method. AcCS provides abundant physical and chemical crosslinking sites contributing to the high mechanical stretchability (elongation at break 600 %) and strength (tensile strength 137 kPa) of AA-IL/AcCS. The high-density of dynamic bonds (hydrogen bonds and electrostatic interactions) in the network of ionogels enables self-healing and self-adhesive features of AA-IL/AcCS. Meanwhile, AA-IL/AcCS exhibits high ionic conductivity (0.1 mS/cm) at room temperature and excellent antifreeze ability (-58 °C). The AA-IL/AcCS-based sensor shows diverse sensory capabilities towards temperature and humidity, moreover, it could precisely detect human motions and handwritings signals. Furthermore, AA-IL/AcCS exhibits excellent bactericidal properties against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. This work opens the possibility of polysaccharides as a macro-crosslinkers for preparing ionogel-based sensors for wearable electronics.

Transparent, High Stretchable, Environmental Tolerance, and Excellent Sensitivity Hydrogel for Flexible Sensors and Capacitive Pens

The prospect of ionic conductive hydrogels in multifunctional sensors has generated widespread scientific interest. The new generation of flexible materials should be combined with superior mechanical properties, high conductivity, transparency, sensitivity, good self-restoring fatigue properties, and other multifunctional characteristics, while the current materials are difficult to meet these requirements. Herein, we prepared poly(acrylamide-acrylic acid) (P(AM-AA))/gelatin/glycerol-Al3+ (PG1G2A) ionic conducting hydrogel by one-pot polymerization under UV light. The prepared PG1G2A ionic conductive hydrogel had high tensile strength (539.18 kPa), excellent tensile property (1412.96%), good fast self-recovery and fatigue resistance, high transparency (>80%), excellent moisturizing, and antifreezing/drying properties. In addition, the ionic conductive hydrogel-based strain sensor can respond to mechanical stimulation and generate accurate, stable, and recyclable electrical signals, with excellent sensitivity (GF 5.81). In addition, the PG1G2A hydrogel could be used as flexible wearable devices for monitoring multiple strain and subtle movements of different body parts at different temperatures. Interestingly, the PG1G2A hydrogel capacitive pen embedded in the mold can be used to write and draw on the screen of a phone or tablet. This new multifunctional ionic conducting hydrogel shows broad application prospects in E-skin, motion monitoring, and human-computer interaction in extreme environments.

Tunable Double-Network GelMA/Alginate Hydrogels for Platelet Lysate-Derived Protein Delivery

Hydrogels (gels) are attractive tools for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine due to their potential for drug delivery and ECM-like composition. In this study, we use rheology to characterize GelMA/alginate gels loaded with human platelet lysate (PL). We then characterize these gels from a physicochemical perspective and evaluate their ability to transport PL proteins, their pore size, and their rate of degradation. Finally, their biocompatibility is evaluated. We describe how alginate changes the mechanical behavior of the gels from elastic to viscoelastic after ionic (calcium-mediated) crosslinking. In addition, we report the release of ~90% of PL proteins from the gels and relate it to the degradation profile of the gels. Finally, we evaluated the biocompatibility of the gels. Thus, the developed gels represent attractive substrates for both cell studies and as bioactive materials.

De novo evolution of macroscopic multicellularity

While early multicellular lineages necessarily started out as relatively simple groups of cells, little is known about how they became Darwinian entities capable of sustained multicellular evolution1-3. Here we investigate this with a multicellularity long-term evolution experiment, selecting for larger group size in the snowflake yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) model system. Given the historical importance of oxygen limitation4, our ongoing experiment consists of three metabolic treatments5-anaerobic, obligately aerobic and mixotrophic yeast. After 600 rounds of selection, snowflake yeast in the anaerobic treatment group evolved to be macroscopic, becoming around 2 × 104 times larger (approximately mm scale) and about 104-fold more biophysically tough, while retaining a clonal multicellular life cycle. This occurred through biophysical adaptation-evolution of increasingly elongate cells that initially reduced the strain of cellular packing and then facilitated branch entanglements that enabled groups of cells to stay together even after many cellular bonds fracture. By contrast, snowflake yeast competing for low oxygen5 remained microscopic, evolving to be only around sixfold larger, underscoring the critical role of oxygen levels in the evolution of multicellular size. Together, this research provides unique insights into an ongoing evolutionary transition in individuality, showing how simple groups of cells overcome fundamental biophysical limitations through gradual, yet sustained, multicellular evolution.

Multiscale design of stiffening and ROS scavenging hydrogels for the augmentation of mandibular bone regeneration

Although biomimetic hydrogels play an essential role in guiding bone remodeling, reconstructing large bone defects is still a significant challenge since bioinspired gels often lack osteoconductive capacity, robust mechanical properties and suitable antioxidant ability for bone regeneration. To address these challenges, we first engineered molecular design of hydrogels (gelatin/polyethylene glycol diacrylate/2-(dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate, GPEGD), where their mechanical properties were significantly enhanced via introducing trace amounts of additives (0.5 wt%). The novel hybrid hydrogels show high compressive strength (>700 kPa), stiff modulus (>170 kPa) and strong ROS-scavenging ability. Furthermore, to endow the GPEGD hydrogels excellent osteoinductions, novel biocompatible, antioxidant and BMP-2 loaded polydopamine/heparin nanoparticles (BPDAH) were developed for functionalization of the GPEGD gels (BPDAH-GPEGD). In vitro results indicate that the antioxidant BPDAH-GPEGD is able to deplete elevated ROS levels to protect cells viability against ROS damage. More importantly, the BPDAH-GPEGD hydrogels have good biocompatibility and promote the osteo differentiation of preosteoblasts and bone regenerations. At 4 and 8 weeks after implantation of the hydrogels in a mandibular bone defect, Micro-computed tomography and histology results show greater bone volume and enhancements in the quality and rate of bone regeneration in the BPDAH-GPEGD hydrogels. Thus, the multiscale design of stiffening and ROS scavenging hydrogels could serve as a promising material for bone regeneration applications.

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Trace additives of DMAEMA markedly enhanced the mechanical performances of the gelatin-based hydrogels through molecular induced multiple crosslinking structures.

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Molecular design strategy combined with bioactive nanocomposites have a synergistically effects on promoting ROS scavenging ability and osteoactivity of the biomimetic hydrogels.

Photocrosslinked Fish Collagen Peptide/Chitin Nanofiber Composite Hydrogels from Marine Resources: Preparation, Mechanical Properties, and an In Vitro Study

Fish collagen peptide (FCP) is a water-soluble polymer with easy accessibility, bioactivity, and reactivity due to its solubility. The gelation of FCP can be carried out by chemical crosslinking, but the mechanical strength of FCP hydrogel is very low because of its intrinsically low molecular weight. Therefore, the mechanical properties of FCP gel should be improved for its wider application as a biomaterial. In this study, we investigated the mechanical properties of M-FCP gel in the context of understanding the influence of chitin nanofibers (CHNFs) on FCP hydrogels. FCP with a number average molecular weight (M_n) of ca. 5000 was reacted with glycidyl methacrylate (GMA) and used for the preparation of photocrosslinked hydrogels. Subsequently, composite hydrogels of methacrylate-modified FCP (M-FCP) and CHNF were prepared by the photoirradiation of a solution of M-FCP containing dispersed CHNF at an intensity of ~60 mW/cm² for 450 s in the presence of 2-hydroxy-1-[4-(hydroxyethoxy)phenyl]-2-methyl-1-propanone (Irgacure 2959) as a photoinitiator. Compression and tensile tests of the FCP hydrogels were carried out using a universal tester. The compression and tensile strength of the hydrogel increased 10-fold and 4-fold, respectively, by the addition of 0.6% CHNF (20% M-FCP), and Young's modulus increased 2.5-fold (20% M-FCP). The highest compression strength of the M-FCP/CHNF hydrogel was ~300 kPa. Cell proliferation tests using fibroblast cells revealed that the hydrogel with CHNF showed good cell compatibility. The cells showed good adhesion on the M-FCP gel with CHNF, and the growth of fibroblast cells after 7 days was higher on the M-FCP/CHNF gel than on the M-FCP gel without CHNF. In conclusion, we found that CHNF improved the mechanical properties as well as the fibroblast cell compatibility, indicating that M-FCP hydrogels reinforced with CHNF are useful as scaffolds and wound-dressing materials.

Starch-Based Ion-Conductive Organo-Hydrogels with Self-Healing, Anti-Freezing, and High Mechanical Properties toward Strain Sensors

Fully bio-based ion-conductive organo-hydrogels with multi-functionalities such as high mechanical properties, self-healing, anti-freezing, and non-drying capabilities are still extremely rare so far, and achieving it remains a great challenge. In this work, a starch/natural rubber composite hydrogel is first obtained by a simple one-pot method, and then an ion-conductive organo-hydrogel composed of starch, natural rubber, lithium chloride, and glycerol with adjustable mechanical properties (ultimate tensile stress of 0.15-2.33 MPa with a failure strain of 675-1367%, elastic modulus of 0.087-15.2 MPa) is fabricated by a solvent replacement strategy. The organo-hydrogels exhibit excellent fatigue resistance, elasticity, and good self-healing, anti-freezing, non-drying properties (with no obvious change after 10 days at ambient environment). The obtained hydrogels are successfully applied to monitor human movement with high durability (over 1000 cycles) and low hysteresis. In addition, the sensors exhibit high stability in a wide temperature range from -20 °C to 100 °C that endows it with a wide range of potential applications in flexible sensing and wearable devices.

Independent Roles of Molecular Mobility and Zeta Potential on Supramolecular Surfaces in the Sequence of RAW264.7 Macrophage Responses

Surface properties of biomaterials affect the morphologies and inflammatory responses of macrophages. Recently, biomaterial design utilizing these properties has been explored to build a scaffold for balancing the immune system in vivo. In the present study, polyrotaxane surfaces with different functional groups including methyl, amino, and sulfo groups are utilized to clarify the effect of molecular mobility and zeta potential of these surfaces on RAW264.7 macrophage responses. At 24 h post-seeding, the majority of the cells adhere onto each surface, and the initial spreading is suppressed by more negatively-charged polyrotaxane surfaces. From 24 to 48 h of incubation, the spreading areas on the unmodified and methylated surfaces significantly increase, whereas those on the aminated and sulfonated surfaces remain unchanged. These results suggest that the initially cellular spreading process depends on the zeta potential, while the subsequent spreading process is governed by the molecular mobility. After lipopolysaccharide stimulation, the less mobile surfaces induce higher expression of inflammation-related genes than highly mobile surfaces, suggesting that molecular mobility is the main factor modulating the inflammatory activity in macrophages. These findings indicate that the zeta potential and molecular mobility of polyrotaxane surfaces may play independent roles in the sequence of macrophage responses.

Marked Sensitivity of Ultimate Elongation to Loading Axiality in Polyrotaxane Gels with Largely Slidable Cross Links

Polyrotaxane (PR) gels with low ring densities have figure-of-eight cross links that can slide along network strands. The slidable cross links have a unique ability to increase the network strand length between adjacent cross links in the loading direction via chain supply from the stress-free direction, thereby enhancing the ultimate elongation (λ_m) of the gels. We reveal that this enhancement of λ_m due to the slidable cross links is pronounced specifically in uniaxial stretching, while it is considerably modest in biaxial stretching. The sensitivity of λ_m to loading axiality becomes larger as the ring densities decrease. The corresponding difference in λ_m is markedly larger for the PR gels with low ring densities than that for the networks with fixed cross links. The exceptional sensitivity of λ_m to loading axiality unveils a previously unidentified aspect of the chain-supply mechanism based on slidable cross links.

Post-Cross-Linking of Collagen Hydrogels by Carboxymethylated Polyrotaxanes for Simultaneously Improving Mechanical Strength and Cell Proliferation

To improve the mechanical properties of collagen hydrogels, which are widely utilized as biomaterials, post-cross-linking of collagen hydrogels was performed using polyrotaxane (PRX) as a cross-linker. Herein, carboxymethyl group-modified PRXs (CMPRs) composed of carboxymethylated α-cyclodextrins (α-CDs) threaded along poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) capped with bulky stoppers were used to cross-link via reaction with the amino groups in the collagen. Four series of CMPRs with different α-CD threading ratios and axle PEG molecular weights were used for the post-cross-linking of the collagen hydrogels to verify the optimal CMPR chemical compositions. The post-cross-linking of the collagen hydrogels with CMPRs improved the swelling ratios and mechanical properties, such as viscoelasticity and tensile strength. Among the tested CMPRs, CMPRs with an axle PEG molecular weight of 35,000 (PEG35k) resulted in better mechanical properties than CMPRs with a PEG10k axis. Additionally, the cell adhesion and proliferation were greatly improved on the surface of the collagen hydrogels post-cross-linked with CMPRs with the PEG35k axle. These findings suggest that the molecular weight of an axle polymer in CMPRs is a more important parameter than the α-CD threading ratios. Accordingly, the post-cross-linking of hydrogels with PRXs is promising for improving the mechanical properties and biomaterial functions of collagen hydrogels.

A Minireview of Microfluidic Scaffold Materials in Tissue Engineering

In 2020, nearly 107,000 people in the U.S needed a lifesaving organ transplant, but due to a limited number of donors, only ∼35% of them have actually received it. Thus, successful bio-manufacturing of artificial tissues and organs is central to satisfying the ever-growing demand for transplants. However, despite decades of tremendous investments in regenerative medicine research and development conventional scaffold technologies have failed to yield viable tissues and organs. Luckily, microfluidic scaffolds hold the promise of overcoming the major challenges associated with generating complex 3D cultures: 1) cell death due to poor metabolite distribution/clearing of waste in thick cultures; 2) sacrificial analysis due to inability to sample the culture non-invasively; 3) product variability due to lack of control over the cell action post-seeding, and 4) adoption barriers associated with having to learn a different culturing protocol for each new product. Namely, their active pore networks provide the ability to perform automated fluid and cell manipulations (e.g., seeding, feeding, probing, clearing waste, delivering drugs, etc.) at targeted locations in-situ. However, challenges remain in developing a biomaterial that would have the appropriate characteristics for such scaffolds. Specifically, it should ideally be: 1) biocompatible-to support cell attachment and growth, 2) biodegradable-to give way to newly formed tissue, 3) flexible-to create microfluidic valves, 4) photo-crosslinkable-to manufacture using light-based 3D printing and 5) transparent-for optical microscopy validation. To that end, this minireview summarizes the latest progress of the biomaterial design, and of the corresponding fabrication method development, for making the microfluidic scaffolds.

Weakly acidic carboxy group-grafted β-cyclodextrin-threaded acid-degradable polyrotaxanes for modulating protein interaction and cellular internalization

To improve the therapeutic potential of β-cyclodextrin (β-CD)-threaded acid-degradable polyrotaxanes (β-CD PRXs) in cholesterol-related metabolic disorders, we investigated the effect of carboxylation of β-CD PRXs on intracellular uptake. In this study, we established a synthetic method for the modification of carboxylalkyl carbamates on β-CD PRXs without degradation and synthesized three series of carboxyalkyl carbamate group-modified β-CD PRXs with different alkyl spacer lengths. The modification of carboxymethyl carbamate (CMC), carboxyethyl carbamate (CEC), and carboxypropyl carbamate (CPC) on the β-CD PRXs slightly reduced the interaction of the PRXs with the lipid layer model compared with the modification of 2-(2-hydroxyethoxy)ethyl carbamate (HEE-PRX), which was used in our previous studies. However, all the carboxylated β-CD PRXs showed a significantly stronger interaction with a protein model compared with HEE-PRX. The carboxylated β-CD PRXs showed significantly high intracellular uptake, through macrophage scavenger receptor A (MSR-A)-mediated endocytosis, in MSR-A-positive RAW 264.7 cells compared with HEE-PRX. Interestingly, the carboxylated β-CD PRXs also showed significantly higher intracellular uptake even in MSR-A-negative cells compared with HEE-PRX. Carboxylated β-CD PRXs are considered to strongly interact with other membrane proteins, resulting in high intracellular uptake. The length of the alkyl spacer affected the intracellular uptake levels of carboxylated PRXs, however, this relationship was varied for different cell types. Furthermore, none of the carboxylated β-CD PRXs exhibited cytotoxicity in the RAW 264.7 and NIH/3T3 cells. Altogether, carboxylation of β-CD PRXs is a promising chemical modification approach for their therapeutic application because carboxylated β-CD PRXs exhibit high cellular internalization efficiency in MSR-A-negative cells and negligible toxicity.

Comparative Study of Gelatin Hydrogels Modified by Various Cross-Linking Agents

Gelatin is a natural biopolymer derived from collagen. Due to its many advantages, such as swelling capacity, biodegradability, biocompatibility, and commercial availability, gelatin is widely used in the field of pharmacy, medicine, and the food industry. Gelatin solutions easily form hydrogels during cooling, however, the materials are mechanically poor. To improve their properties, they are often chemically crosslinked. The cross-linking agents are divided into two groups: Zero-length and non-zero-length cross-linkers. In this study, gelatin was cross-linked by three different cross-linking agents: EDC-NHS, as a typically used cross-linker, and also squaric acid (SQ) and dialdehyde starch (DAS), as representatives of a second group of cross-linkers. For all prepared gelatin hydrogels, mechanical strength tests, thermal analysis, infrared spectroscopy, swelling ability, and SEM images were performed. The results indicate that the dialdehyde starch is a better cross-linking agent for gelatin than EDC-NHS. Meanwhile, the use of squaric acid does not give beneficial changes to the properties of the hydrogel.

Manufacturing micropatterned collagen scaffolds with chemical-crosslinking for development of biomimetic tissue-engineered oral mucosa

The junction between the epithelium and the underlying connective tissue undulates, constituting of rete ridges, which lack currently available soft tissue constructs. In this study, using a micro electro mechanical systems process and soft lithography, fifteen negative molds, with different dimensions and aspect ratios in grid- and pillar-type configurations, were designed and fabricated to create three-dimensional micropatterns and replicated onto fish-scale type I collagen scaffolds treated with chemical crosslinking. Image analyses showed the micropatterns were well-transferred onto the scaffold surfaces, showing the versatility of our manufacturing system. With the help of rheological test, the collagen scaffold manufactured in this study was confirmed to be an ideal gel and have visco-elastic features. As compared with our previous study, its mechanical and handling properties were improved by chemical cross-linking, which is beneficial for grafting and suturing into the complex structures of oral cavity. Histologic evaluation of a tissue-engineered oral mucosa showed the topographical microstructures of grid-type were well-preserved, rather than pillar-type, a well-stratified epithelial layer was regenerated on all scaffolds and the epithelial rete ridge-like structure was developed. As this three-dimensional microstructure is valuable for maintaining epithelial integrity, our micropatterned collagen scaffolds can be used not only intraorally but extraorally as a graft material for human use.

Comparative Study of the Structural Properties, Color, Bioactive Compounds Content and Antioxidant Capacity of Aerated Gelatin Gels Enriched with Cryoconcentrated Blueberry Juice during Storage

Cryoconcentrated blueberry juice (CBJ) was incorporated into aerated gelatin gel and the effects on the mechanical properties, phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity (AA) were evaluated at day 1 and day 28 under refrigerated storage. At day 1, 8 g of gelatin gel and 40 g of CBJ (called M5) exhibited a soft texture and heterogeneous and non-spherical small bubbles, with values close to 10.5, 8.0 and 7.1 N, for hardness, gumminess and chewiness, respectively. M5 presented an increase of approximately 1.7, 1.9 and 1.9, and 1.2, 1.8, 2.1 and 1.3 times in comparison to the other samples, for total polyphenol, anthocyanin and flavonoid contents, and individual phenolic compounds, 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) and oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) assays, respectively. At day 28, the samples showed a weakening of the 3D network, with high degradation of phenolic compounds and AA due to the oxidation, polymerization and syneresis. Therefore, CBJ might be an interesting functional ingredient to add to (aerated and non-aerated) gelatin gel without affecting its properties, and thus different food products with high nutritional values and without added artificial sweeteners could be developed. Additionally, the gelatin gel/CBJ combinations might be suitable for additive manufacturing as a coating of food matrices.

Tooth-Supporting Hard Tissue Regeneration Using Biopolymeric Material Fabrication Strategies

The mineralized tissues (alveolar bone and cementum) are the major components of periodontal tissues and play a critical role to anchor periodontal ligament (PDL) to tooth-root surfaces. The integrated multiple tissues could generate biological or physiological responses to transmitted biomechanical forces by mastication or occlusion. However, due to periodontitis or traumatic injuries, affect destruction or progressive damage of periodontal hard tissues including PDL could be affected and consequently lead to tooth loss. Conventional tissue engineering approaches have been developed to regenerate or repair periodontium but, engineered periodontal tissue formation is still challenging because there are still limitations to control spatial compartmentalization for individual tissues and provide optimal 3D constructs for tooth-supporting tissue regeneration and maturation. Here, we present the recently developed strategies to induce osteogenesis and cementogenesis by the fabrication of 3D architectures or the chemical modifications of biopolymeric materials. These techniques in tooth-supporting hard tissue engineering are highly promising to promote the periodontal regeneration and advance the interfacial tissue formation for tissue integrations of PDL fibrous connective tissue bundles (alveolar bone-to-PDL or PDL-to-cementum) for functioning restorations of the periodontal complex.

Cellular Orientation on Repeatedly Stretching Gelatin Hydrogels with Supramolecular Cross-Linkers

The cytocompatibility of biological and synthetic materials is an important issue for biomaterials. Gelatin hydrogels are used as biomaterials because of their biodegradability. We have previously reported that the mechanical properties of gelatin hydrogels are improved by cross-linking with polyrotaxanes, a supramolecular compound composed of many cyclic molecules threaded with a linear polymer. In this study, the ability of gelatin hydrogels cross-linked by polyrotaxanes (polyrotaxane–gelatin hydrogels) for cell cultivation was investigated. Because the amount of polyrotaxanes used for gelatin fabrication is very small, the chemical composition was barely altered. The structure and wettability of these hydrogels are also the same as those of conventional hydrogels. Fibroblasts adhered on polyrotaxane–gelatin hydrogels and conventional hydrogels without any reduction or apoptosis of adherent cells. From these results, the polyrotaxane–gelatin hydrogels have the potential to improve the mechanical properties of gelatin without affecting cytocompatibility. Interestingly, when cells were cultured on polyrotaxane–gelatin hydrogels after repeated stress deformation, the cells were spontaneously oriented to the stretching direction. This cellular response was not observed on conventional hydrogels. These results suggest that the use of a polyrotaxane cross-linking agent can not only improve the strength of hydrogels but can also contribute to controlling reorientation of the gelatin.