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Mondal I, Groves M, Driver EM, Vittori W, Halden RU. Carcinogenic formaldehyde in U.S. residential buildings: Mass inventories, human health impacts, and associated healthcare costs. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 944:173640. [PMID: 38825200 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.173640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2024] [Revised: 05/27/2024] [Accepted: 05/28/2024] [Indexed: 06/04/2024]
Abstract
Formaldehyde, a human carcinogen, is formulated into building materials in the U.S. and worldwide. We used literature information and mass balances to obtain order-of-magnitude estimates of formaldehyde inventories in U.S. residential buildings as well as associated exposures, excess morbidity, and healthcare costs along with other economic ramifications. Use of formaldehyde in building materials dates to the 1940s and continues today unabated, despite its international classification in 2004 as a human carcinogen. Global production of formaldehyde was about 32 million metric tons (MMT) in 2006. In the U.S., 5.7 ± 0.05 to 7.4 ± 0.125 MMT of formaldehyde were produced annually from 2006 to 2022, with 65 ± 5 % of this mass (3.7 ± 0.03 to 4.8 ± 0.08 MMT) entering building materials. For a typical U.S. residential building constructed in 2022, we determined an average total mass of formaldehyde containing chemicals of 48.2 ± 10.1 kg, equivalent to 207 ± 40 g of neat formaldehyde per housing unit. When extrapolated to the entire U.S. housing stock, this equates to 29,800 ± 5760 metric tons of neat formaldehyde. If the health threshold in indoor air of 0.1 mg/m3 is never surpassed in a residential building, safe venting of embedded formaldehyde would take years. Using reported indoor air exceedances, up to 645 ± 33 excess cancer cases may occur U.S. nationwide annually generating up to US$65 M in cancer treatment costs alone, not counting ~16,000 ± 1000 disability adjusted life-years. Other documents showed health effects of formaldehyde exist, but could not be quantified reliably, including sick building syndrome outcomes such as headache, asthma, and various respiratory illnesses. Opportunities to improve indoor air exposure assessments are discussed with special emphasis on monitoring of building wastewater. Safer alternatives to formaldehyde in building products exist and are recommended for future use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Indrayudh Mondal
- Biodesign Center for Environmental Health Engineering, Biodesign Institute, Building B, Arizona State University, 1001 S McAllister Ave, Tempe, AZ 85281-8101, United States of America; School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment, 660 S College Ave, Tempe, AZ 85281, United States of America
| | - Megan Groves
- Biodesign Center for Environmental Health Engineering, Biodesign Institute, Building B, Arizona State University, 1001 S McAllister Ave, Tempe, AZ 85281-8101, United States of America
| | - Erin M Driver
- Biodesign Center for Environmental Health Engineering, Biodesign Institute, Building B, Arizona State University, 1001 S McAllister Ave, Tempe, AZ 85281-8101, United States of America
| | - Wendy Vittori
- Health Product Declaration Collaborative, 401 Edgewater Place, Suite 600, Wakefield, MA 01880, United States of America
| | - Rolf U Halden
- Biodesign Center for Environmental Health Engineering, Biodesign Institute, Building B, Arizona State University, 1001 S McAllister Ave, Tempe, AZ 85281-8101, United States of America.
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Parolin GA, Vital VG, de Vasconcellos SP, Lago JHG, Péres LO. Thymol as Starting Material for the Development of a Biobased Material with Enhanced Antimicrobial Activity: Synthesis, Characterization, and Potential Application. Molecules 2024; 29:1010. [PMID: 38474522 DOI: 10.3390/molecules29051010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2023] [Revised: 10/19/2023] [Accepted: 10/20/2023] [Indexed: 03/14/2024] Open
Abstract
A biobased material, polythymol (PTF), was prepared using thymol, a monoterpene obtained from the essential oil of Thymus vulgaris (Lamiaceae), as a starting material with the aim of enhancing the antimicrobial properties of this natural product. Initially, different processes were performed in order to optimize the reaction conditions to obtain a macromolecule with a high purity and yield. PTF was characterized using different techniques, such as NMR, infrared, UV-Vis, and thermogravimetric analyses. The antimicrobial activity of both PTF and thymol was evaluated against different microorganisms, including S. aureus, E. coli, P. aeruginosa, and C. albicans. The obtained MIC values showed a higher potential for PTF than the monomer thymol-for example, against S. aureus (500 and 31.5 µg·mL-1 for thymol and PTF, respectively). Therefore, the obtained results show that the polymerization of thymol afforded more active biomaterial than the starting monomeric antimicrobial compound (thymol), suggesting that PTF is an important biomaterial.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovana A Parolin
- Laboratory of Hybrid Materials, Chemistry Department, Federal University of São Paulo, Diadema 09913-030, SP, Brazil
| | - Vitor G Vital
- Multidisciplinary Laboratory of Health and Environment Sciences, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Federal University of São Paulo, Diadema 09913-030, SP, Brazil
| | - Suzan P de Vasconcellos
- Multidisciplinary Laboratory of Health and Environment Sciences, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Federal University of São Paulo, Diadema 09913-030, SP, Brazil
| | - João Henrique G Lago
- Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Center for Natural and Human Sciences, Federal University of ABC, Santo Andre 09210-580, SP, Brazil
| | - Laura O Péres
- Laboratory of Hybrid Materials, Chemistry Department, Federal University of São Paulo, Diadema 09913-030, SP, Brazil
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Selvaraj K, Spontón ME, Estenoz DA, Forchetti Casarino A, Veerasamy US, Kumar M, Al-Mohaimeed AM, Al-Onazi WA, Kannaiyan D. Development of quinoline-based heteroatom polybenzoxazines reinforced graphitic carbon nitride (GCN) carbonisation composites for emerging supercapacitor applications. SOFT MATTER 2024; 20:1210-1223. [PMID: 38229512 DOI: 10.1039/d3sm01445b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2024]
Abstract
The current research described in this paper, focuses on the development of a new quinoline-based Mannich-type benzoxazine and its use to obtain advanced carbonisation materials with a high energy storage capacity. Based on this, a quinoline-based benzoxazine monomer (Q-xda) was synthesised by a reaction between 8-hydroxyquinoline, xylylenediamine and paraformaldehyde, and it is characterised by FT-IR and 1H-NMR spectroscopy. Composites were prepared from the benzoxazine and variable weight percentages of graphitic carbon nitride (GCN) (i.e., 5, 10, and 15 wt%). The oxazine ring-opening curing process of the polybenzoxazine composites, and its subsequent pyrolysis reaction was performed; and their chemical structures were confirmed using FT-IR spectroscopy. Also, the thermal and morphological characteristics of the composites were evaluated by XRD, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and SEM analyses. According to the results of the thermal experiments, adding GCN reinforcement significantly increased the thermal stability and char yield of the resultant composites. Electrochemical, and hydrophobic investigations were also carried out, and the results of these suggesting that the composites reinforced with 15 wt% GCN exhibit the highest dielectric constant (high κ = 10.2) and contact angle (145°). However, all the crosslinked composites demonstrated a remarkable electrochemical performance as pseudocapacitors. The resulting poly(Q-xda) + 15 wt% GCN electrodes showed a higher capacitance and a lower transferred charge resistance (i.e., 370 F g-1 at 6 A g-1 and 20.8 Ω) than the poly(Q-xda) electrode (i.e., 216 F g-1 at 6 A g-1 and 26.0 Ω). In addition, the poly(Q-xda) + 15% GCN exhibited a cycling efficiency of 96.2% even after 2000 cycles. From these results, it can be concluded that the constructed electrodes perform well in electrochemical operations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kumar Selvaraj
- Instituto de Desarrollo Tecnológico para la Industria Química (INTEC), CONICET, Ruta Nacional 168, Km. 0, Santa Fe, 3000, Argentina.
- Facultad de Ingeniería Química, Universidad Nacional del Litoral (UNL), Santiago del Estero 2829, Santa Fe, 3000, Argentina.
| | - Marisa Elisabet Spontón
- Instituto de Desarrollo Tecnológico para la Industria Química (INTEC), CONICET, Ruta Nacional 168, Km. 0, Santa Fe, 3000, Argentina.
- Facultad de Ingeniería Química, Universidad Nacional del Litoral (UNL), Santiago del Estero 2829, Santa Fe, 3000, Argentina.
| | - Diana Alejandra Estenoz
- Instituto de Desarrollo Tecnológico para la Industria Química (INTEC), CONICET, Ruta Nacional 168, Km. 0, Santa Fe, 3000, Argentina.
- Facultad de Ingeniería Química, Universidad Nacional del Litoral (UNL), Santiago del Estero 2829, Santa Fe, 3000, Argentina.
| | - Agustín Forchetti Casarino
- Instituto de Desarrollo Tecnológico para la Industria Química (INTEC), CONICET, Ruta Nacional 168, Km. 0, Santa Fe, 3000, Argentina.
- Facultad de Ingeniería Química, Universidad Nacional del Litoral (UNL), Santiago del Estero 2829, Santa Fe, 3000, Argentina.
| | - Uma Shankar Veerasamy
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Chiang Mai University, Muang, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand
| | - Manimaran Kumar
- Research Center for Applied Microbiology, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), JI. Raya Bogor KM. 46, Cibinong, 16911, Indonesia
| | - Amal M Al-Mohaimeed
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh 11495, Saudi Arabia
| | - Wedad A Al-Onazi
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh 11495, Saudi Arabia
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Yang Y, Hao Y, Huang L, Luo Y, Chen S, Xu M, Chen W. Recent Advances in Electrochemical Sensors for Formaldehyde. Molecules 2024; 29:327. [PMID: 38257238 PMCID: PMC11154431 DOI: 10.3390/molecules29020327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2023] [Revised: 01/06/2024] [Accepted: 01/06/2024] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Formaldehyde, a ubiquitous indoor air pollutant, plays a significant role in various biological processes, posing both environmental and health challenges. This comprehensive review delves into the latest advancements in electrochemical methods for detecting formaldehyde, a compound of growing concern due to its widespread use and potential health hazards. This review underscores the inherent advantages of electrochemical techniques, such as high sensitivity, selectivity, and capability for real-time analysis, making them highly effective for formaldehyde monitoring. We explore the fundamental principles, mechanisms, and diverse methodologies employed in electrochemical formaldehyde detection, highlighting the role of innovative sensing materials and electrodes. Special attention is given to recent developments in nanotechnology and sensor design, which significantly enhance the sensitivity and selectivity of these detection systems. Moreover, this review identifies current challenges and discusses future research directions. Our aim is to encourage ongoing research and innovation in this field, ultimately leading to the development of advanced, practical solutions for formaldehyde detection in various environmental and biological contexts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yufei Yang
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shangqiu Normal University, Shangqiu 476000, China; (Y.Y.); (Y.H.); (L.H.); (M.X.)
| | - Yuanqiang Hao
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shangqiu Normal University, Shangqiu 476000, China; (Y.Y.); (Y.H.); (L.H.); (M.X.)
- Key Laboratory of Theoretical Organic Chemistry and Functional Molecule of Ministry of Education, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hunan University of Science and Technology, Xiangtan 411201, China;
| | - Lijie Huang
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shangqiu Normal University, Shangqiu 476000, China; (Y.Y.); (Y.H.); (L.H.); (M.X.)
| | - Yuanjian Luo
- Key Laboratory of Theoretical Organic Chemistry and Functional Molecule of Ministry of Education, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hunan University of Science and Technology, Xiangtan 411201, China;
| | - Shu Chen
- Key Laboratory of Theoretical Organic Chemistry and Functional Molecule of Ministry of Education, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hunan University of Science and Technology, Xiangtan 411201, China;
| | - Maotian Xu
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shangqiu Normal University, Shangqiu 476000, China; (Y.Y.); (Y.H.); (L.H.); (M.X.)
| | - Wansong Chen
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410017, China
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Peng Z, Jiang X, Si C, Joao Cárdenas-Oscanoa A, Huang C. Advances of Modified Lignin as Substitute to Develop Lignin-Based Phenol-Formaldehyde Resin Adhesives. CHEMSUSCHEM 2023; 16:e202300174. [PMID: 37338272 DOI: 10.1002/cssc.202300174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2023] [Revised: 04/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/21/2023]
Abstract
Traditionally, phenols used to prepare phenol-formaldehyde (PF) resin adhesives are obtained from phenolic compounds and various chemicals, which are extracted from petroleum-based raw materials. Lignin, a sustainable phenolic macromolecule in the cell wall of biomass with an aromatic ring and a phenolic hydroxyl group similar to those of phenol, can be an ideal substitute for phenol in PF resin adhesives. However, only a few lignin-based adhesives are produced on a large scale in industry, mainly because of the low activity of lignin. Preparing lignin-based PF resin adhesives with exceptional achievements by modifying lignin instead of phenol is an efficient method to improve the economic benefits and protect the environment. In this review, the latest progress in the preparation of PF resin adhesives via lignin modification, including chemical, physical, and biological modifications, is discussed. In addition, the advantages and disadvantages of different lignin modification methods for adhesives are compared and discussed, and future research directions for the synthesis of lignin-based PF resin adhesives are proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenwen Peng
- Co-Innovation Center for Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, College of Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, 210037, P. R. China
| | - Xiao Jiang
- Department of Forestry Biomaterials, North Carolina State University Campus Box 8005, Raleigh, NC 27695-8005, USA
| | - Chuanling Si
- Co-Innovation Center for Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, College of Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, 210037, P. R. China
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin, 300457, P. R. China
| | - Aldo Joao Cárdenas-Oscanoa
- Forest Industry Department, Faculty of Forest Science, Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina, Lima, 15024, Perú
| | - Caoxing Huang
- Co-Innovation Center for Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, College of Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, 210037, P. R. China
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Chen Y, Shen J, Wang W, Lin L, Lv R, Zhang S, Ma J. Demethylation of lignin with mild conditions and preparation of green adhesives to reduce formaldehyde emissions and health risks. Int J Biol Macromol 2023; 242:124462. [PMID: 37100322 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.124462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2023] [Revised: 03/08/2023] [Accepted: 04/11/2023] [Indexed: 04/28/2023]
Abstract
Demethylated lignin (DL) was prepared in a NaOH/urea solution at room temperature, and the DL solution was directly substituted for phenol to prepare demethylated lignin phenol formaldehyde (DLPF). The 1H NMR results showed that the benzene ring's -OCH3 content dropped from 0.32 mmol/g to 0.18 mmol/g, whereas the functional group content of the phenolic hydroxyl group increased by 176.67 %, increasing the reactivity of DL. The bonding strength of 1.24 MPa and formaldehyde emission of 0.059 mg/m3 met the Chinese national standard with a 60 % replacement of DL with phenol. The volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions of DLPF and PF were simulated, with 25 types of VOCs were found in PF plywood and 14 types found in DLPF plywood. Terpene and aldehyde emissions from DLPF plywood rose, but total VOC emissions were 28.48 % less than those from PF. For carcinogenic risks (CR), both PF and DLPF showed ethylbenzene and naphthalene as carcinogenic VOCs, whereas DLPF had a lower total CR of 6.50 × 10-5. Both plywood had a noncarcinogenic risks of <1, which was within the permissible range to harm humans. In this study, the mild modification conditions of DL benefit its large-scale production, and DLPF effectively reduces the VOCs released from plywood in indoor environments, diminishing the health risks to humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Chen
- Key Laboratory of Bio-Based Material Science & Technology of Ministry of Education, College of Material Science and Engineering, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China; Engineering Research Center of Advanced Wooden Materials of Ministry of Education, College of Material Science and Engineering, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China
| | - Jun Shen
- Key Laboratory of Bio-Based Material Science & Technology of Ministry of Education, College of Material Science and Engineering, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China; Engineering Research Center of Advanced Wooden Materials of Ministry of Education, College of Material Science and Engineering, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China.
| | - Weidong Wang
- Key Laboratory of Bio-Based Material Science & Technology of Ministry of Education, College of Material Science and Engineering, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China; Engineering Research Center of Advanced Wooden Materials of Ministry of Education, College of Material Science and Engineering, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China
| | - Li Lin
- Key Laboratory of Bio-Based Material Science & Technology of Ministry of Education, College of Material Science and Engineering, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China; Engineering Research Center of Advanced Wooden Materials of Ministry of Education, College of Material Science and Engineering, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China
| | - Ruixue Lv
- Key Laboratory of Bio-Based Material Science & Technology of Ministry of Education, College of Material Science and Engineering, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China; Engineering Research Center of Advanced Wooden Materials of Ministry of Education, College of Material Science and Engineering, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China
| | - Siqi Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Bio-Based Material Science & Technology of Ministry of Education, College of Material Science and Engineering, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China; Engineering Research Center of Advanced Wooden Materials of Ministry of Education, College of Material Science and Engineering, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China
| | - Junhong Ma
- Key Laboratory of Bio-Based Material Science & Technology of Ministry of Education, College of Material Science and Engineering, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China; Engineering Research Center of Advanced Wooden Materials of Ministry of Education, College of Material Science and Engineering, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China
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An R, Liu C, Wang J, Jia P. Wood-Derived Polymers from Olefin-Functionalized Lignin and Ethyl Cellulose via Thiol-Ene Click Chemistry. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:polym15081923. [PMID: 37112070 PMCID: PMC10140994 DOI: 10.3390/polym15081923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2023] [Revised: 04/14/2023] [Accepted: 04/14/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Lignin and cellulose derivatives have vast potential to be applied in polymer materials. The preparation of cellulose and lignin derivatives through esterification modification is an important method to endow cellulose and lignin with good reactivity, processability and functionality. In this study, ethyl cellulose and lignin are modified via esterification to prepare olefin-functionalized ethyl cellulose and lignin, which are further used to prepare cellulose and lignin cross-linker polymers via thiol-ene click chemistry. The results show that the olefin group concentration in olefin-functionalized ethyl cellulose and lignin reached 2.8096 mmol/g and 3.7000 mmol/g. The tensile stress at break of the cellulose cross-linked polymers reached 23.59 MPa. The gradual enhancement in mechanical properties is positively correlated with the olefin group concentration. The existence of ester groups in the cross-linked polymers and degradation products makes them more thermally stable. In addition, the microstructure and pyrolysis gas composition are also investigated in this paper. This research is of vast significance to the chemical modification and practical application of lignin and cellulose.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rongrong An
- School of Geographic and Biologic Information, Nanjing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Chengguo Liu
- Institute of Chemical Industry of Forest Products, Chinese Academy of Forestry, 16 Suojin North Road, Nanjing 210042, China
| | - Jun Wang
- School of Geographic and Biologic Information, Nanjing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Puyou Jia
- Institute of Chemical Industry of Forest Products, Chinese Academy of Forestry, 16 Suojin North Road, Nanjing 210042, China
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Qin Y, Meng F, Xu C, Hu Z, Zhang Y, Jia Y, Li S, Yuan X. Preparation and Performance of Novel Flavonoid Phenols-Based Biomass-Modified Phenol Formaldehyde Resins. J Inorg Organomet Polym Mater 2023. [DOI: 10.1007/s10904-023-02619-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/30/2023]
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Galdino DS, Kondo MY, De Araujo VA, Ferrufino GLAA, Faustino E, dos Santos HF, Christoforo AL, Luna CMR, de Campos CI. Thermal and Gluing Properties of Phenol-Based Resin with Lignin for Potential Application in Structural Composites. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:polym15020357. [PMID: 36679237 PMCID: PMC9864801 DOI: 10.3390/polym15020357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2022] [Revised: 12/26/2022] [Accepted: 12/28/2022] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Using Kraft lignin, bio-based adhesives have been increasingly studied to replace those petrochemical-based solutions, due to low cost, easy availability and the potential for biodegradability of this biomaterial. In this study, lignin-based phenol-formaldehyde (LPF) resins were synthesized using commercial Eucalypt Kraft Lignin (EKL), purified at 95%, as a phenol substitute in different proportions of 10%, 20%, 30% and 50%. The properties of bio-based phenol formaldehyde (BPF) synthesized resin were compared with phenol-formaldehyde resin (PF) used for control sampling. The results indicated that viscosity, gel time and solid contents increased with the addition of pure EKL. The shear strength test of glue line was studied according to American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), and BPF-based results were superior to samples bonded with the PF as a control sample, being suitable for structural purposes. Changes in the curing behavior of different resins were analyzed by Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC), and sample comparison indicated that the curing of the LPF resin occurred at lower temperatures than the PF. The addition of EKL in PF reduced its thermal stability compared to traditional resin formulation, resulting in a lower decomposition temperature and a smaller amount of carbonaceous residues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danilo Soares Galdino
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, São Paulo State University (UNESP), 333 Doutor Ariberto Pereira da Cunha Avenue, Guaratinguetá 12516-410, Brazil
- Correspondence:
| | - Marcel Yuzo Kondo
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, São Paulo State University (UNESP), 333 Doutor Ariberto Pereira da Cunha Avenue, Guaratinguetá 12516-410, Brazil
| | - Victor Almeida De Araujo
- Civil Engineering Postgraduate Program, Federal University of São Carlos (UFSCar), 235 km Washington Luís Highway, São Carlos 13565-905, Brazil
- Science and Engineering Institute, São Paulo State University (UNESP), 519 Geraldo Alckmin Street, Itapeva 18409-010, Brazil
| | | | - Emerson Faustino
- Campus of Ariquemes, Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology of Rondônia (IFRO), Ariquemes 76870-000, Brazil
| | - Herisson Ferreira dos Santos
- Campus of Ariquemes, Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology of Rondônia (IFRO), Ariquemes 76870-000, Brazil
| | - André Luis Christoforo
- Civil Engineering Postgraduate Program, Federal University of São Carlos (UFSCar), 235 km Washington Luís Highway, São Carlos 13565-905, Brazil
| | - Carlos Manuel Romero Luna
- Science and Engineering Institute, São Paulo State University (UNESP), 519 Geraldo Alckmin Street, Itapeva 18409-010, Brazil
| | - Cristiane Inácio de Campos
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, São Paulo State University (UNESP), 333 Doutor Ariberto Pereira da Cunha Avenue, Guaratinguetá 12516-410, Brazil
- Science and Engineering Institute, São Paulo State University (UNESP), 519 Geraldo Alckmin Street, Itapeva 18409-010, Brazil
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Performance and characterization of phenol-formaldehyde resin with crude bio-oil by model compound method. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0271478. [PMID: 36626379 PMCID: PMC9831301 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0271478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2022] [Accepted: 12/16/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
In order to clarify the effects of crude bio-oil for phenol-formaldehyde resin, the phenol-formaldehyde resin with bio-oil model compounds (BMPF) were prepared by model compound method. The bonding strength and aging resistance of BMPF were determined, and their microstructure and chemical bonds were also analyzed by scanning electron microscope, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and nuclear magnetic resonance analysis, respectively. The results showed that the components of crude bio-oil had various degrees of effects on the BMPF performance, and the most obvious one is the phenols. The phenols and the ketones of bio-oil had positive effects on the bonding strength. The ketones had the biggest effect on the surface smoothness of BMPF film. But all components of bio-oil could inordinately improve the aging resistance of BMPF. The structural analysis indicated that the effects of bio-oil components on the BMPF performance by changing the resin structure. The CH2 peak in FT-IR and the methylene bridges intensity in NMR of phenol-free BMPF and ketone-free BMPF were smaller, while the results of aldehyde-free BMPF and acid-free BMPF were opposite. And the influence degree of BMPF structure was basically consistent with that of BMPF performance. These results could provide a basis for the modification of phenol-formaldehyde resin by crude bio-oil.
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Zhang W, Zhang T, Huang L, Cui C, Wang Z. Characterization and its curing behaviors of rigid phenolic foams based on cardanol. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF POLYMER ANALYSIS AND CHARACTERIZATION 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/1023666x.2022.2154906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Wenzheng Zhang
- Department of Materials Chemistry, Shenyang University of Chemical Technology, Shenyang, China
| | - Tingting Zhang
- Department of Materials Chemistry, Shenyang University of Chemical Technology, Shenyang, China
| | - Li Huang
- Liaoning Province Petroleum-chemical Industrial Planning & Designing Institute Co., Ltd, Shenyang, China
| | - Cangkui Cui
- Shenyang No.4 Rubber Co.,Ltd, Shenyang, China
| | - Zan Wang
- Analysis and Test Center, Shenyang University of Chemical Technology, Shenyang, China
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12
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A Review of Rigid Polymeric Cellular Foams and Their Greener Tannin-Based Alternatives. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14193974. [PMID: 36235923 PMCID: PMC9572835 DOI: 10.3390/polym14193974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2022] [Revised: 09/12/2022] [Accepted: 09/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
This review focuses on the description of the main processes and materials used for the formulation of rigid polymer foams. Polyurethanes and their derivatives, as well as phenolic systems, are described, and their main components, foaming routes, end of life, and recycling are considered. Due to environmental concerns and the need to find bio-based alternatives for these products, special attention is given to a recent class of polymeric foams: tannin-based foams. In addition to their formulation and foaming procedures, their main structural, thermal, mechanical, and fire resistance properties are described in detail, with emphasis on their advanced applications and recycling routes. These systems have been shown to possess very interesting properties that allow them to be considered as potential substitutes for non-renewable rigid polymeric cellular foams.
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Xu J, Brodu N, Devougue-Boyer C, Youssef B, Taouk B. Biobased novolac resins cured with DGEBA using water-insoluble fraction of pyrolysis bio-oil: Synthesis and characterization. J Taiwan Inst Chem Eng 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jtice.2022.104464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
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14
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Zou D, Zheng X, Ye Y, Yan D, Xu H, Si S, Li X. Effect of different amounts of bamboo charcoal on properties of biodegradable bamboo charcoal/polylactic acid composites. Int J Biol Macromol 2022; 216:456-464. [PMID: 35809669 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2022.06.209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2022] [Revised: 06/29/2022] [Accepted: 06/30/2022] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Biodegradable composites were prepared from polylactic acid (PLA) and bamboo charcoal (BC) by melt blending and hot pressing. The effects of BC addition on the mechanical properties, water absorption, DMA, TGA, DSC, and CONE of BC/PLA composites were investigated. The microscopic morphology of the composites was analyzed by SEM. The results showed that for BC addition of 40 wt%, the mechanical strength, thermal properties, and flame retardant properties of the composites were improved compared with those of PLA, with a 2.24 % increase in flexural strength and a 1535 % increase (500 °C) in TG mass retention rate. The crystallinity increased by 129.66 %, the peak loss factor decreased by 31.15 %, the time required for combustion was delayed by 168 s, the peak heat release rate decreased by 29.40 %, the carbon residue rate detected by cone calorimetry increased by 48.50 %, and the peak mass loss rate decreased by 48.82 %. The addition of BC enhanced the crystallization capacity of PLA, and improved the thermal properties and flame retardant properties of the prepared composites. The results showed that materials prepared with a BC content of 40 wt% exhibited the best overall performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dongfang Zou
- College of Materials Science and Engineering, Central South University of Forestry and Technology, 410004 Changsha, PR China
| | - Xia Zheng
- College of Materials Science and Engineering, Central South University of Forestry and Technology, 410004 Changsha, PR China
| | - Yunpeng Ye
- College of Materials Science and Engineering, Central South University of Forestry and Technology, 410004 Changsha, PR China
| | - Dong Yan
- College of Materials Science and Engineering, Central South University of Forestry and Technology, 410004 Changsha, PR China
| | - Hao Xu
- College of Materials Science and Engineering, Central South University of Forestry and Technology, 410004 Changsha, PR China
| | - Shuang Si
- College of Materials Science and Engineering, Central South University of Forestry and Technology, 410004 Changsha, PR China
| | - Xingong Li
- College of Materials Science and Engineering, Central South University of Forestry and Technology, 410004 Changsha, PR China.
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15
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Shaily, Zafar F, Jahan A, Parveen B, Sharmin E, Alam M, Nishat N. Effect of curing temperature on mechanical strength, hydrophobicity, chemical and thermal stability of Cardanol‐derived Resol‐polyurethane films/coatings. POLYM ENG SCI 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/pen.25999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Shaily
- Inorganic Materials Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry Jamia Millia Islamia New Delhi India
| | - Fahmina Zafar
- Inorganic Materials Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry Jamia Millia Islamia New Delhi India
| | - Afroz Jahan
- Inorganic Materials Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry Jamia Millia Islamia New Delhi India
| | - Bushra Parveen
- Inorganic Materials Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry Jamia Millia Islamia New Delhi India
| | - Eram Sharmin
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, College of Pharmacy Umm Al‐Qura University Makkah Al‐Mukarramah Saudi Arabia
| | - Manawwer Alam
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science King Saud University Riyadh Saudi Arabia
| | - Nahid Nishat
- Inorganic Materials Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry Jamia Millia Islamia New Delhi India
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16
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Janceva S, Andersone A, Spulle U, Tupciauskas R, Papadopoulou E, Bikovens O, Andzs M, Zaharova N, Rieksts G, Telysheva G. Eco-Friendly Adhesives Based on the Oligomeric Condensed Tannins-Rich Extract from Alder Bark for Particleboard and Plywood Production. MATERIALS 2022; 15:ma15113894. [PMID: 35683191 PMCID: PMC9182082 DOI: 10.3390/ma15113894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2022] [Revised: 05/23/2022] [Accepted: 05/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022]
Abstract
Toxic formaldehyde emissions, and the necessity to reduce the consumption of petrochemicals, stimulates the development of environmentally friendly adhesives. The aim of this research was to study, for the first time, the possibility of using condensed tannins (CTs)-rich extracts from grey alder (Alnus incana) and black alder (Alnus glutinosa) bark in the production of particleboards and plywood adhesives. The chemical structure, composition, and molecular weight of the CTs were identified by a 13C-NMR and TOF-MS analysis. Three innovative adhesive systems were studied: CTs-phenol-formaldehyde (CTs-PF) resin; a CTs-polyethyleneimine (PEI) adhesive system; and CTs–PEI combined with an ultra-low emitting formaldehyde resin (ULEFR)—CTs–PEI–ULEFR. The results showed that CTs-PF resin has properties close to commercial PF resin, and the formaldehyde emission was twice lower. CTs–PEI bonded particleboards corresponded to the requirements of the EN 312:2010 standard for particleboards in dry conditions (Type P2). CTs–PEI–ULEFR, with a 40–60% substitution of ULEFR by CTs–PEI, had adhesive properties very close to ULEFR; the plywood shear strength fit the requirements of the EN 314-2:1993 standard for application in internal and external system conditions. The introduction of extracted alder bark residues microparticles into the composition of the adhesive system showed their positive potential for application as a filler.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarmite Janceva
- Latvian State Institute of Wood Chemistry, Dzerbenes Street 27, LV-1006 Riga, Latvia; (S.J.); (R.T.); (O.B.); (M.A.); (N.Z.); (G.R.); (G.T.)
| | - Anna Andersone
- Latvian State Institute of Wood Chemistry, Dzerbenes Street 27, LV-1006 Riga, Latvia; (S.J.); (R.T.); (O.B.); (M.A.); (N.Z.); (G.R.); (G.T.)
- Ekokompozit Ltd., Dzerbenes Street 27, LV-1006 Riga, Latvia
- Correspondence: or ; Tel.: +371-2910-4319
| | - Uldis Spulle
- Department of Wood Processing, Latvia University of Life Sciences and Technologies, Liela Street 2, LV-3001 Jelgava, Latvia;
| | - Ramunas Tupciauskas
- Latvian State Institute of Wood Chemistry, Dzerbenes Street 27, LV-1006 Riga, Latvia; (S.J.); (R.T.); (O.B.); (M.A.); (N.Z.); (G.R.); (G.T.)
| | - Electra Papadopoulou
- Chimar Hellas S.A., 15 km National Road Thessaloniki—Polygyros, 570 01 Thessaloniki, Greece;
| | - Oskars Bikovens
- Latvian State Institute of Wood Chemistry, Dzerbenes Street 27, LV-1006 Riga, Latvia; (S.J.); (R.T.); (O.B.); (M.A.); (N.Z.); (G.R.); (G.T.)
| | - Martins Andzs
- Latvian State Institute of Wood Chemistry, Dzerbenes Street 27, LV-1006 Riga, Latvia; (S.J.); (R.T.); (O.B.); (M.A.); (N.Z.); (G.R.); (G.T.)
| | - Natalija Zaharova
- Latvian State Institute of Wood Chemistry, Dzerbenes Street 27, LV-1006 Riga, Latvia; (S.J.); (R.T.); (O.B.); (M.A.); (N.Z.); (G.R.); (G.T.)
- Ekokompozit Ltd., Dzerbenes Street 27, LV-1006 Riga, Latvia
| | - Gints Rieksts
- Latvian State Institute of Wood Chemistry, Dzerbenes Street 27, LV-1006 Riga, Latvia; (S.J.); (R.T.); (O.B.); (M.A.); (N.Z.); (G.R.); (G.T.)
- The Institute of Physics, University of Latvia, Miera Street 32, LV-2169 Salaspils, Latvia
| | - Galina Telysheva
- Latvian State Institute of Wood Chemistry, Dzerbenes Street 27, LV-1006 Riga, Latvia; (S.J.); (R.T.); (O.B.); (M.A.); (N.Z.); (G.R.); (G.T.)
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17
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Liu J, Fang J, Xie E, Gan W. Relevance between Cassava Starch Liquefied by Phenol and Modification of Phenol-Formaldehyde Resin Wood Adhesive. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14091914. [PMID: 35567082 PMCID: PMC9105529 DOI: 10.3390/polym14091914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2022] [Revised: 05/04/2022] [Accepted: 05/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
A novel type of phenol-formaldehyde (PF) resin was prepared by utilizing the liquefaction products liquefied by phenol under acidic conditions and then reacted with formaldehyde under alkaline conditions. The relationship between the liquefaction behavior of cassava starch and the properties of modified PF resin wood adhesive was studied. The effects of the liquid–solid ratio of phenol to cassava starch, sulfuric acid usage, and liquefaction time on the liquefaction residue rate and relative crystallinity of cassava starch were determined. The results showed that the bonding strength of modified PF resin decreased gradually with the decrease of the liquid–solid ratio. It was a great surprise that bonding strength still met the requirement of the national standard of 0.7 MPa when the liquid–solid ratio was 1.0. The detailed contents were analyzed through FT-IR, SEM, and XRD. In terms of the utilization of bio-materials for liquefaction to synthesize wood adhesive, cassava starch may be superior to the others.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinming Liu
- College of Environment and Resources, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin 541000, China; (J.L.); (E.X.)
| | - Jianlin Fang
- School of Resources, Environment and Materials, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China;
| | - Enjun Xie
- College of Environment and Resources, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin 541000, China; (J.L.); (E.X.)
| | - Weixing Gan
- College of Environment and Resources, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin 541000, China; (J.L.); (E.X.)
- School of Resources, Environment and Materials, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China;
- Correspondence:
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18
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On the Development of Phenol-Formaldehyde Resins Using a New Type of Lignin Extracted from Pine Wood with a Levulinic-Acid Based Solvent. Molecules 2022; 27:molecules27092825. [PMID: 35566176 PMCID: PMC9105709 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27092825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2022] [Revised: 04/22/2022] [Accepted: 04/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Resole resins have many applications, especially for foam production. However, the use of phenol, a key ingredient in resoles, has serious environmental and economic disadvantages. In this work, lignin extracted from pine wood using a "green" solvent, levulinic acid, was used to partially replace the non-sustainable phenol. The physicochemical properties of this novel resin were compared with resins composed of different types of commercial lignins. All resins were optimized to keep their free formaldehyde content below 1 wt%, by carefully adjusting the pH of the mixture. Substitution of phenol with lignin generally increases the viscosity of the resins, which is further increased with the lignin mass fraction. The addition of lignin decreases the kinetics of gelification of the resin. The type and amount of lignin also affect the thermal stability of the resins. It was possible to obtain resins with higher thermal stability than the standard phenol-formaldehyde resins without lignin. This work provides new insights regarding the development of lignin-based resoles as a very promising sustainable alternative to petrol-based resins.
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19
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Tang K, Yu Y, Xu G, Tang X, Zhang A, Ge T, Li Y. Preparation of a Ceramifiable Phenolic Foam and Its Ceramization Behavior. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14081591. [PMID: 35458341 PMCID: PMC9030769 DOI: 10.3390/polym14081591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2022] [Revised: 04/09/2022] [Accepted: 04/11/2022] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Ceramifiable phenolic foam (GC-PF) with a low ceramization temperature has been prepared by incorporation of low melting point glass frits (LMG) containing B2O3 and Na2O as main components into a phenolic resin matrix. Fourier transform infrared spectrometry, X-ray diffractometry, and scanning electron microscopy were used for assessment of the structure, phase composition, and morphology of GC-PF before and after combustion analysis, respectively. A glassy ceramic protective layer is formed when GC-PF is exposed to flame or a high temperature environment. The presence of LMG not only reduces the level of defects in the phenolic foam cell wall (gas escape pore), but also promotes the generation of a glassy ceramic protective layer that could inhibit heat feedback from the combustion zone and reduce the rate of formation of volatile fuel fragments. Thermogravimetric analysis and differential scanning calorimetry were used to establish that GC-PF exhibits excellent thermal stability. Limiting oxygen index (LOI) determination suggests that GC-PF displays good flame retardancy. The LOI of GC-PF was as high as 45.6%, and the char residue at 900 °C was six times greater than that for ordinary phenolic foam (O-PF). The area of the raw material matrix of GC-PF after combustion for 60 s was about 1.7 times larger than that for O-PF. A possible mode of formation of glassy ceramics has been proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaihong Tang
- Key Laboratory of Polymer and Catalyst Synthesis Technology of Liaoning Province, School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Shenyang University of Technology, Shenyang 110870, China; (K.T.); (Y.L.)
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shenyang University of Chemical Technology, Shenyang 110142, China; (Y.Y.); (G.X.); (X.T.)
| | - Yang Yu
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shenyang University of Chemical Technology, Shenyang 110142, China; (Y.Y.); (G.X.); (X.T.)
- Polymer Material Synthesis and Processing Professional Technology Innovation Center of Liaoning Province, Shenyang University of Chemical Technology, Shenyang 110142, China
| | - Guiqiu Xu
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shenyang University of Chemical Technology, Shenyang 110142, China; (Y.Y.); (G.X.); (X.T.)
- Polymer Material Synthesis and Processing Professional Technology Innovation Center of Liaoning Province, Shenyang University of Chemical Technology, Shenyang 110142, China
| | - Xiaojun Tang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shenyang University of Chemical Technology, Shenyang 110142, China; (Y.Y.); (G.X.); (X.T.)
- Polymer Material Synthesis and Processing Professional Technology Innovation Center of Liaoning Province, Shenyang University of Chemical Technology, Shenyang 110142, China
| | - Ailing Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Polymer and Catalyst Synthesis Technology of Liaoning Province, School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Shenyang University of Technology, Shenyang 110870, China; (K.T.); (Y.L.)
- Correspondence: (A.Z.); (T.G.); Tel.: +86-15940124718 (A.Z.); +86-13940555281 (T.G.)
| | - Tiejun Ge
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shenyang University of Chemical Technology, Shenyang 110142, China; (Y.Y.); (G.X.); (X.T.)
- Polymer Material Synthesis and Processing Professional Technology Innovation Center of Liaoning Province, Shenyang University of Chemical Technology, Shenyang 110142, China
- Correspondence: (A.Z.); (T.G.); Tel.: +86-15940124718 (A.Z.); +86-13940555281 (T.G.)
| | - Yongjiang Li
- Key Laboratory of Polymer and Catalyst Synthesis Technology of Liaoning Province, School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Shenyang University of Technology, Shenyang 110870, China; (K.T.); (Y.L.)
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20
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Yu Y, Li C, Jiang C, Chang J, Shen D. Aging Behaviors of Phenol-Formaldehyde Resin Modified by Bio-Oil under Five Aging Conditions. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14071352. [PMID: 35406225 PMCID: PMC9002685 DOI: 10.3390/polym14071352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2022] [Revised: 03/16/2022] [Accepted: 03/22/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The bio-oil phenol-formaldehyde (BPF) resin, prepared by using bio-oil as a substitute for phenol, has similar bonding strength but lower price to phenol-formaldehyde (PF) resin. As a common adhesive for outdoor wood, the aging performance of BPF resin is particularly important. The variations in mass, bonding strength, microstructure, atomic composition, and chemical structure of BPF resin under five aging conditions (heat treatment, water immersion, UV exposure, hydrothermal treatment, and weatherometer treatment) were characterized by scanning electron microscope, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, respectively. Compared under five aging conditions, after aging 960 h, the mass loss of plywood and film was largest under hydrothermal treatment; the bonding strength of plywood, the surface roughness, and O/C ratio of the resin film changed most obviously under weatherometer treatment. FT-IR analysis showed that the decreased degree of peak intensity on CH2 and C–O–C characteristic peaks of BPF resin were weaker under water immersion, hydrothermal treatment, and weatherometer treatment than those of PF resin. The comparison of data between BPF and PF resins after aging 960 h showed that adding bio-oil could obviously weaken the aging effect of water but slightly enhance that of heat. The results could provide a basis for the aging resistance modification of BPF resin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuxiang Yu
- Laboratory of Material Innovation Design and Intelligent Interaction, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, 928 Seconded Avenue, Xiasha High Education Zone, Hangzhou 310018, China; (C.L.); (C.J.); (D.S.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +86-0571-86843290
| | - Chao Li
- Laboratory of Material Innovation Design and Intelligent Interaction, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, 928 Seconded Avenue, Xiasha High Education Zone, Hangzhou 310018, China; (C.L.); (C.J.); (D.S.)
| | - Chenxin Jiang
- Laboratory of Material Innovation Design and Intelligent Interaction, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, 928 Seconded Avenue, Xiasha High Education Zone, Hangzhou 310018, China; (C.L.); (C.J.); (D.S.)
| | - Jianmin Chang
- College of Materials Science and Technology, Beijing Forestry University, 35 Qinghua East Road, Haidian District, Beijing 100083, China;
| | - Danni Shen
- Laboratory of Material Innovation Design and Intelligent Interaction, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, 928 Seconded Avenue, Xiasha High Education Zone, Hangzhou 310018, China; (C.L.); (C.J.); (D.S.)
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21
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Analyzing the Consequences of Sharing Principles on Different Economies: A Case Study of Short Rotation Coppice Poplar Wood Panel Production Value Chain. FORESTS 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/f13030461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Quantifying the environmental impacts of value chains on the earth’s ecological limits is crucial to designing science-based strategies for environmental sustainability. Combining the Planetary Boundaries (PB) and Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) framework can be used to estimate if a value chain can be considered as Absolute Environmentally Sustainable (AES) in relation to the PB. One of the crucial steps in implementing the PB-LCA framework is using sharing principals to downscale the global PB to smaller scales (e.g., country) and calculate an assigned Safe Operating Space (aSOS). This study assesses the potential AES of a wood panel value chain in Austria and Slovakia to understand the consequences of applying diverse sharing principles on different economies. Two economic and one emission-based sharing principles were compared. The results show that depending on the sharing principle implemented, different conclusions on the AES and potential strategies at a value chain and national level are achieved. Economic-based sharing principles are biased to the value chain’s economical contribution. As for the emission-based approach, greater aSOS is given to systems with a higher contribution of emissions. A potential downside of either approach is that it can lead to misleading environmental strategies, such as hindering the development of less wealthy value chains and giving less incentive to improve environmental efficiency. These outcomes highlight the importance of further research into resolving the issues about just assignment of SOS. Moreover, our study contributes to the effort of making the PB-LCA framework relevant for strategic decision-making at a value chain level.
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22
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Roy A, Fajardie P, Lepoittevin B, Baudoux J, Lapinte V, Caillol S, Briou B. CNSL, a Promising Building Blocks for Sustainable Molecular Design of Surfactants: A Critical Review. Molecules 2022; 27:molecules27041443. [PMID: 35209231 PMCID: PMC8876098 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27041443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2022] [Revised: 02/09/2022] [Accepted: 02/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Surfactants are crystallizing a certain focus for consumer interest, and their market is still expected to grow by 4 to 5% each year. Most of the time these surfactants are of petroleum origin and are not often biodegradable. Cashew Nut Shell Liquid (CNSL) is a promising non-edible renewable resource, directly extracted from the shell of the cashew nut. The interesting structure of CNSL and its components (cardanol, anacardic acid and cardol) lead to the synthesis of biobased surfactants. Indeed, non-ionic, anionic, cationic and zwitterionic surfactants based on CNSL have been reported in the literature. Even now, CNSL is absent or barely mentioned in specialized review or chapters talking about synthetic biobased surfactants. Thus, this review focuses on CNSL as a building block for the synthesis of surfactants. In the first part, it describes and criticizes the synthesis of molecules and in the second part, it compares the efficiency and the properties (CMC, surface tension, kraft temperature, biodegradability) of the obtained products with each other and with commercial ones.
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Affiliation(s)
- Audrey Roy
- Orpia Innovation, CNRS, Bâtiment Chimie Balard, 1919 Route de Mendes, 34000 Montpellier, France;
| | - Pauline Fajardie
- Institut Charles Gerhardt Montpellier (ICGM), Université de Montpellier, CNRS, ENSCM, 34095 Montpellier, France; (P.F.); (V.L.); (S.C.)
| | - Bénédicte Lepoittevin
- Laboratoire de Chimie Moléculaire et Thio-Organique (LCMT), Normandie Université, ENSICAEN, UNICAEN, UMR CNRS 6507, 6 Boulevard Maréchal Juin, 14050 Caen, France; (B.L.); (J.B.)
| | - Jérôme Baudoux
- Laboratoire de Chimie Moléculaire et Thio-Organique (LCMT), Normandie Université, ENSICAEN, UNICAEN, UMR CNRS 6507, 6 Boulevard Maréchal Juin, 14050 Caen, France; (B.L.); (J.B.)
| | - Vincent Lapinte
- Institut Charles Gerhardt Montpellier (ICGM), Université de Montpellier, CNRS, ENSCM, 34095 Montpellier, France; (P.F.); (V.L.); (S.C.)
| | - Sylvain Caillol
- Institut Charles Gerhardt Montpellier (ICGM), Université de Montpellier, CNRS, ENSCM, 34095 Montpellier, France; (P.F.); (V.L.); (S.C.)
| | - Benoit Briou
- Orpia Innovation, CNRS, Bâtiment Chimie Balard, 1919 Route de Mendes, 34000 Montpellier, France;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +33-6-32-83-21-76
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23
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Abstract
Bio-oil, although rich in chemical species, is primarily used as fuel oil, due to its greater calorific power when compared to the biomass from which it is made. The incomplete understanding of how to explore its chemical potential as a source of value-added chemicals and, therefore, a supply of intermediary chemical species is due to the diverse composition of bio-oil. Being biomass-based, making it subject to composition changes, bio-oil is obtained via different processes, the two most common being fast pyrolysis and hydrothermal liquefaction. Different methods result in different bio-oil compositions even from the same original biomass. Understanding which biomass source and process results in a particular chemical makeup is of interest to those concerned with the refinement or direct application in chemical reactions of bio-oil. This paper presents a summary of published bio-oil production methods, origin biomass, and the resulting composition.
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24
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Gong X, Meng Y, Lu J, Tao Y, Cheng Y, Wang H. A Review on Lignin‐Based Phenolic Resin Adhesive. MACROMOL CHEM PHYS 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/macp.202100434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoyu Gong
- Liaoning Key Laboratory of Lignocellulose Chemistry and BioMaterials Dalian Polytechnic University Dalian Liaoning 116034 China
| | - Yi Meng
- Liaoning Key Laboratory of Lignocellulose Chemistry and BioMaterials Dalian Polytechnic University Dalian Liaoning 116034 China
| | - Jie Lu
- Liaoning Key Laboratory of Lignocellulose Chemistry and BioMaterials Dalian Polytechnic University Dalian Liaoning 116034 China
| | - Yehan Tao
- Liaoning Key Laboratory of Lignocellulose Chemistry and BioMaterials Dalian Polytechnic University Dalian Liaoning 116034 China
| | - Yi Cheng
- Liaoning Key Laboratory of Lignocellulose Chemistry and BioMaterials Dalian Polytechnic University Dalian Liaoning 116034 China
| | - Haisong Wang
- Liaoning Key Laboratory of Lignocellulose Chemistry and BioMaterials Dalian Polytechnic University Dalian Liaoning 116034 China
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25
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Sustainable Bio-Based Polymers: Towards a Circular Bioeconomy. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 14:polym14010022. [PMID: 35012045 PMCID: PMC8747281 DOI: 10.3390/polym14010022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2021] [Accepted: 12/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
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26
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Saini S, Sharma KK. Fungal lignocellulolytic enzymes and lignocellulose: A critical review on their contribution to multiproduct biorefinery and global biofuel research. Int J Biol Macromol 2021; 193:2304-2319. [PMID: 34800524 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.11.063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2021] [Revised: 10/27/2021] [Accepted: 11/10/2021] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
The continuous increase in the global energy demand has diminished fossil fuel reserves and elevated the risk of environmental deterioration and human health. Biorefinery processes involved in producing bio-based energy-enriched chemicals have paved way to meet the energy demands. Compared to the thermochemical processes, fungal system biorefinery processes seems to be a promising approach for lignocellulose conversion. It also offers an eco-friendly and energy-efficient route for biofuel generation. Essentially, ligninolytic white-rot fungi and their enzyme arsenals degrade the plant biomass into structural constituents with minimal by-products generation. Hemi- or cellulolytic enzymes from certain soft and brown-rot fungi are always favoured to hydrolyze complex polysaccharides into fermentable sugars and other value-added products. However, the cost of saccharifying enzymes remains the major limitation, which hinders their application in lignocellulosic biorefinery. In the past, research has been focused on the role of lignocellulolytic fungi in biofuel production; however, a cumulative study comprising the contribution of the lignocellulolytic enzymes in biorefinery technologies is still lagging. Therefore, the overarching goal of this review article is to discuss the major contribution of lignocellulolytic fungi and their enzyme arsenal in global biofuel research and multiproduct biorefinery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonu Saini
- Laboratory of Enzymology and Recombinant DNA Technology, Department of Microbiology, Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak 124001, Haryana, India
| | - Krishna Kant Sharma
- Laboratory of Enzymology and Recombinant DNA Technology, Department of Microbiology, Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak 124001, Haryana, India.
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Younesi-Kordkheili H, Pizzi A. A Comparison among Lignin Modification Methods on the Properties of Lignin-Phenol-Formaldehyde Resin as Wood Adhesive. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:polym13203502. [PMID: 34685261 PMCID: PMC8541073 DOI: 10.3390/polym13203502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2021] [Revised: 09/21/2021] [Accepted: 10/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The research aim of this work is to determine the influence of lignin modification methods on lignin–phenol–formaldehyde (LPF) adhesive properties. Thus, glyoxal (G), phenol (P), ionic liquid (IL), and maleic anhydride (MA) were used to modify lignin. The modified lignins were used for phenol substitution (50 wt%) in phenol–formaldehyde adhesives. The prepared resins were then used for the preparation of wood particleboard. These LPF resins were characterized physicochemically, namely by using standard methods to determine gel time, solids content, density, and viscosity, thus the physicochemical properties of the LPF resins synthesized. The panels dimensional stability, formaldehyde emission, bending modulus, bending strength, and internal bond (IB) strength were also measured. MA-modified lignin showed by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) the lowest temperature of curing than the resins with non-modified lignin and modified with IL, phenolared lignin, and glyoxal. LPF resins with lignin treated with maleic anhydride presented a shorter gel time, higher viscosity, and solids content than the resins with other lignin modifications. Equally, the particleboard panels prepared with LPF resins with maleic anhydride or with ionic liquid had the lowest formaldehyde emission and the highest mechanical strength among all the synthesized resins. The dimensional stability of all panels bonded with modified lignin LPF resins presented no difference of any significance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hamed Younesi-Kordkheili
- Department of Wood and Paper Sciences and Technology, Faculty of Natural Resources, Semnan University, Semnan 35131-19111, Iran
- Correspondence: (H.Y.-K.); (A.P.); Tel.: +98-911-355-4324 (H.Y.-K.); +33-623-126-940 (A.P.); Fax: +98-233-362-6299 (H.Y.-K.)
| | - Antonio Pizzi
- LERMAB-ENSTIB, University of Lorraine, 27 rue Philippe Seguin, 88000 Epinal, France
- Correspondence: (H.Y.-K.); (A.P.); Tel.: +98-911-355-4324 (H.Y.-K.); +33-623-126-940 (A.P.); Fax: +98-233-362-6299 (H.Y.-K.)
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Sarika PR, Nancarrow P, Khansaheb A, Ibrahim T. Progress in Bio‐Based Phenolic Foams: Synthesis, Properties, and Applications. CHEMBIOENG REVIEWS 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/cben.202100017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- P. R. Sarika
- American University of Sharjah Department of Chemical Engineering P.O. Box 26666 Sharjah United Arab Emirates
| | - Paul Nancarrow
- American University of Sharjah Department of Chemical Engineering P.O. Box 26666 Sharjah United Arab Emirates
| | - Abdulrahman Khansaheb
- Khansaheb Industries Airport Road, Rashidiya, P.O. Box 13 Dubai United Arab Emirates
| | - Taleb Ibrahim
- American University of Sharjah Department of Chemical Engineering P.O. Box 26666 Sharjah United Arab Emirates
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29
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Antov P, Savov V, Trichkov N, Krišťák Ľ, Réh R, Papadopoulos AN, Taghiyari HR, Pizzi A, Kunecová D, Pachikova M. Properties of High-Density Fiberboard Bonded with Urea-Formaldehyde Resin and Ammonium Lignosulfonate as a Bio-Based Additive. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:polym13162775. [PMID: 34451315 PMCID: PMC8398458 DOI: 10.3390/polym13162775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2021] [Accepted: 08/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The potential of ammonium lignosulfonate (ALS) as an eco-friendly additive to urea–formaldehyde (UF) resin for manufacturing high-density fiberboard (HDF) panels with acceptable properties and low free formaldehyde emission was investigated in this work. The HDF panels were manufactured in the laboratory with very low UF resin content (4%) and ALS addition levels varying from 4% to 8% based on the mass of the dry wood fibers. The press factor applied was 15 s·mm−1. The physical properties (water absorption and thickness swelling), mechanical properties (bending strength, modulus of elasticity, and internal bond strength), and free formaldehyde emission were evaluated in accordance with the European standards. In general, the developed HDF panels exhibited acceptable physical and mechanical properties, fulfilling the standard requirements for HDF panels for use in load-bearing applications. Markedly, the laboratory-produced panels had low free formaldehyde emission ranging from 2.0 to 1.4 mg/100 g, thus fulfilling the requirements of the E0 and super E0 emission grades and confirming the positive effect of ALS as a formaldehyde scavenger. The thermal analyses performed, i.e., differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA), and derivative thermogravimetry (DTG), also confirmed the main findings of the research. It was concluded that ALS as a bio-based, formaldehyde-free adhesive can be efficiently utilized as an eco-friendly additive to UF adhesive formulations for manufacturing wood-based panels under industrial conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petar Antov
- Faculty of Forest Industry, University of Forestry, 1797 Sofia, Bulgaria; (V.S.); (N.T.)
- Correspondence: (P.A.); (Ľ.K.)
| | - Viktor Savov
- Faculty of Forest Industry, University of Forestry, 1797 Sofia, Bulgaria; (V.S.); (N.T.)
| | - Neno Trichkov
- Faculty of Forest Industry, University of Forestry, 1797 Sofia, Bulgaria; (V.S.); (N.T.)
| | - Ľuboš Krišťák
- Faculty of Wood Sciences and Technology, Technical University in Zvolen, 96001 Zvolen, Slovakia;
- Correspondence: (P.A.); (Ľ.K.)
| | - Roman Réh
- Faculty of Wood Sciences and Technology, Technical University in Zvolen, 96001 Zvolen, Slovakia;
| | - Antonios N. Papadopoulos
- Laboratory of Wood Chemistry and Technology, Department of Forestry and Natural Environment, International Hellenic University, GR-661 00 Drama, Greece;
| | - Hamid R. Taghiyari
- Wood Science and Technology Department, Faculty of Materials Engineering & New Technologies, Shahid Rajaee Teacher Training University, Tehran 16788-15811, Iran;
| | - Antonio Pizzi
- LERMAB-ENSTIB, University of Lorraine, 27 Rue Philippe Seguin, 88000 Epinal, France;
| | - Daniela Kunecová
- Faculty of Engineering, Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, 94976 Nitra, Slovakia;
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Optimization of a Totally Fiber-Reinforced Plastic Composite Sandwich Construction of Helicopter Floor for Weight Saving, Fuel Saving and Higher Safety. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:polym13162735. [PMID: 34451275 PMCID: PMC8399855 DOI: 10.3390/polym13162735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Revised: 08/09/2021] [Accepted: 08/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The application of fiber-reinforced plastic (FRP) composites as structural elements of air vehicles provides weight saving, which results in a reduction in fuel consumption, fuel cost, and air pollution, and a higher speed. The goal of this research was to elaborate a new optimization method for a totally FRP composite construction for helicopter floors. During the optimization, 46 different layer combinations of 4 different FRP layers (woven glass fibers with phenolic resin; woven glass fibers with epoxy resin; woven carbon fibers with epoxy resin; hybrid composite) and FRP honeycomb core structural elements were investigated. The face sheets were composed of a different number of layers with cross-ply, angle-ply, and multidirectional fiber orientations. During the optimization, nine design constraints were considered: deflection; face sheet stress (bending load, end loading); stiffness; buckling; core shear stress; skin wrinkling; intracell buckling; and shear crimping. The single-objective weight optimization was solved by applying the Interior Point Algorithm of the Matlab software, the Generalized Reduced Gradient (GRG) Nonlinear Algorithm of the Excel Solver software, and the Laminator software. The Digimat-HC software solved the numerical models for the optimum sandwich plates of helicopter floors. The main contribution is developing a new method for optimizing a totally FRP composite sandwich structure—due to its material constituents and construction—that is more advantageous than traditional helicopter floors. A case study validated this fact.
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Jędrzejczak P, Collins MN, Jesionowski T, Klapiszewski Ł. The role of lignin and lignin-based materials in sustainable construction - A comprehensive review. Int J Biol Macromol 2021; 187:624-650. [PMID: 34302869 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.07.125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 45.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2021] [Revised: 07/08/2021] [Accepted: 07/19/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The construction industry in the 21st century faces numerous global challenges associated with growing concerns for the environment. Therefore, this review focuses on the role of lignin and its derivatives in sustainable construction. Lignin's properties are defined in terms of their structure/property relationships and how structural differences arising from lignin extraction methods influence its application within the construction sector. Lignin and lignin composites allow the partial replacement of petroleum products, making the final materials and the entire construction sector more sustainable. The latest technological developments associated with cement composites, rigid polyurethane foams, paints and coatings, phenolic or epoxy resins, and bitumen replacements are discussed in terms of key engineering parameters. The application of life cycle assessment in construction, which is important from the point of view of estimating the environmental impact of various solutions and materials, is also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patryk Jędrzejczak
- Poznan University of Technology, Faculty of Chemical Technology, Institute of Chemical Technology and Engineering, PL-60965 Poznan, Poland
| | - Maurice N Collins
- School of Engineering and Bernal Institute, University of Limerick, Ireland; Advanced Materials and BioEngineering Research Centre (AMBER), University of Limerick, Ireland
| | - Teofil Jesionowski
- Poznan University of Technology, Faculty of Chemical Technology, Institute of Chemical Technology and Engineering, PL-60965 Poznan, Poland
| | - Łukasz Klapiszewski
- Poznan University of Technology, Faculty of Chemical Technology, Institute of Chemical Technology and Engineering, PL-60965 Poznan, Poland.
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Zhou Y, ElMetwally AE, Chen J, Shi W, Cilingir EK, Walters B, Mintz KJ, Martin C, Ferreira BCLB, Zhang W, Hettiarachchi SD, Serafim LF, Blackwelder PL, Wikramanayake AH, Peng Z, Leblanc RM. Gel-like carbon dots: A high-performance future photocatalyst. J Colloid Interface Sci 2021; 599:519-532. [PMID: 33964697 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2021.04.121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2021] [Revised: 04/16/2021] [Accepted: 04/26/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
To protect water resources, halt waterborne diseases, and prevent future water crises, photocatalytic degradation of water pollutants arouse worldwide interest. However, considering the low degradation efficiency and risk of secondary pollution displayed by most metal-based photocatalysts, highly efficient and environmentally friendly photocatalysts with appropriate band gap, such as carbon dots (CDs), are in urgent demand. In this study, the photocatalytic activity of gel-like CDs (G-CDs) was studied using diverse water pollution models for photocatalytic degradation. The degradation rate constants demonstrated a remarkably enhanced photocatalytic activity of G-CDs compared with most known CD species and comparability to graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4). In addition, the rate constant was further improved by 1.4 times through the embedment of g-C3N4 in G-CDs to obtain CD-C3N4. Significantly, the rate constant was also higher than that of g-C3N4 alone, revealing a synergistic effect. Moreover, the use of diverse radical scavengers suggested that the main contributors to the photocatalytic degradation with G-CDs alone were superoxide radicals (O2-) and holes that were, however, substituted by O2- and hydroxyl radicals (OH) due to the addition of g-C3N4. Furthermore, the photocatalytic stabilities of G-CDs and CD-C3N4 turned out to be excellent after four cycles of dye degradation were performed continuously. Eventually, the nontoxicity and environmental friendliness of G-CDs and CD-C3N4 were displayed with sea urchin cytotoxicity tests. Hence, through various characterizations, photocatalytic degradation and cytotoxicity tests, G-CDs proved to be an environmentally friendly and highly efficient future photocatalyst.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiqun Zhou
- Department of Chemistry, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL 33146, USA
| | - Ahmed E ElMetwally
- Department of Chemistry, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL 33146, USA; Petrochemicals Department, Egyptian Petroleum Research Institute, Nasr City, Cairo 11727, Egypt
| | - Jiuyan Chen
- Department of Chemistry, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL 33146, USA
| | - Wenquan Shi
- National Center for International Research on Photoelectric and Energy Materials, School of Materials and Energy, Yunnan University, Kunming, Yunnan 650091, People's Republic of China
| | - Emel K Cilingir
- Department of Chemistry, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL 33146, USA
| | - Brian Walters
- Department of Biology, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL 33146, USA
| | - Keenan J Mintz
- Department of Chemistry, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL 33146, USA
| | - Christian Martin
- Department of Chemistry, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL 33146, USA
| | | | - Wei Zhang
- Department of Chemistry, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL 33146, USA
| | | | - Leonardo F Serafim
- Department of Chemistry, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL 33146, USA
| | - Patricia L Blackwelder
- Department of Chemistry, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL 33146, USA; MGS/RSMAS, University of Miami, Key Biscayne, FL 33149, USA
| | | | - Zhili Peng
- National Center for International Research on Photoelectric and Energy Materials, School of Materials and Energy, Yunnan University, Kunming, Yunnan 650091, People's Republic of China.
| | - Roger M Leblanc
- Department of Chemistry, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL 33146, USA.
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Optimal Design of a Fiber-Reinforced Plastic Composite Sandwich Structure for the Base Plate of Aircraft Pallets In Order to Reduce Weight. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:polym13050834. [PMID: 33803260 PMCID: PMC7967186 DOI: 10.3390/polym13050834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2020] [Revised: 02/21/2021] [Accepted: 03/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The application of fiber-reinforced plastic (FRP) composite materials instead of metals, due to the low density of FRP materials, results in weight savings in the base plates of aircraft pallets. Lower weight leads to lower fuel consumption of the aircraft and thereby less environmental damage. The study aimed to investigate replacing the currently used aluminum base plates of aircraft pallets with composite sandwich plates to reduce the weight of the pallets, thereby the weight of the unit loads transported by aircraft. The newly constructed sandwich base plate consists of an aluminum honeycomb core and FRP composite face-sheets. First, we made experimental tests and numerical calculations for the investigated FRP sandwich panel to validate the applicability of the calculation method. Next, the mechanical properties of 40 different layer-combinations of 4 different FRP face-sheet materials (phenolic woven glass fiber; epoxy woven glass fiber; epoxy woven carbon fiber; and hybrid layers) were investigated using the Digimat-HC modeling program in order to find the appropriate face-sheet construction. Face-sheets were built up in 1, 2, 4, 6 or 8 layers with sets of fiber orientations including cross-ply (0°, 90°) and/or angle-ply (±45°). The weight optimization method was elaborated considering 9 design constraints: stiffness, deflection, skin stress, core shear stress, facing stress, overall buckling, shear crimping, skin wrinkling, and intracell buckling. A case study for the base plate of an aircraft pallet was introduced to validate the optimization procedure carried out using the Matlab (Interior Point Algorithm) and Excel Solver (Generalized Reduced Gradient Nonlinear Algorithm) programs. In the case study, the weight of the optimal structure (epoxy woven carbon fiber face-sheets) was 27 kg, which provides weight savings of 66% compared to the standard aluminum pallet. The article’s main added value is the elaboration and implementation of an optimization method that results in significant weight savings and thus lower fuel consumption of aircraft.
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Antov P, Krišt’ák L, Réh R, Savov V, Papadopoulos AN. Eco-Friendly Fiberboard Panels from Recycled Fibers Bonded with Calcium Lignosulfonate. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:polym13040639. [PMID: 33669944 PMCID: PMC7924858 DOI: 10.3390/polym13040639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2021] [Revised: 02/19/2021] [Accepted: 02/19/2021] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The potential of using residual softwood fibers from the pulp and paper industry for producing eco-friendly, zero-formaldehyde fiberboard panels, bonded with calcium lignosulfonate (CLS) as a lignin-based, formaldehyde free adhesive, was investigated in this work. Fiberboard panels were manufactured in the laboratory by applying CLS addition content ranging from 8% to 14% (on the dry fibers). The physical and mechanical properties of the developed composites, i.e., water absorption (WA), thickness swelling (TS), modulus of elasticity (MOE), bending strength (MOR), as well as the free formaldehyde emission, were evaluated according to the European norms. In general, only the composites, developed with 14% CLS content, exhibited MOE and MOR values, comparable with the standard requirements for medium-density fiberboards (MDF) for use in dry conditions. All laboratory-produced composites demonstrated significantly deteriorated moisture-related properties, i.e., WA (24 h) and TS (24 h), which is a major drawback. Noticeably, the fiberboards produced had a close-to-zero formaldehyde content, reaching the super E0 class (≤1.5 mg/100 g), with values, ranging from 0.8 mg/100 g to 1.1 mg/100 g, i.e., equivalent to formaldehyde emission of natural wood. The amount of CLS adhesive had no significant effect on formaldehyde content.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petar Antov
- Faculty of Forest Industry, University of Forestry, 1797 Sofia, Bulgaria;
- Correspondence: (P.A.); (A.N.P.)
| | - L’uboš Krišt’ák
- Faculty of Wood Sciences and Technology, Technical University in Zvolen, 96001 Zvolen, Slovakia; (L.K.); (R.R.)
| | - Roman Réh
- Faculty of Wood Sciences and Technology, Technical University in Zvolen, 96001 Zvolen, Slovakia; (L.K.); (R.R.)
| | - Viktor Savov
- Faculty of Forest Industry, University of Forestry, 1797 Sofia, Bulgaria;
| | - Antonios N. Papadopoulos
- Laboratory of Wood Chemistry and Technology, Department of Forestry and Natural Environment, International Hellenic University, GR-661 00 Drama, Greece
- Correspondence: (P.A.); (A.N.P.)
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Réh R, Krišťák Ľ, Sedliačik J, Bekhta P, Božiková M, Kunecová D, Vozárová V, Tudor EM, Antov P, Savov V. Utilization of Birch Bark as an Eco-Friendly Filler in Urea-Formaldehyde Adhesives for Plywood Manufacturing. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:polym13040511. [PMID: 33567731 PMCID: PMC7915062 DOI: 10.3390/polym13040511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2021] [Revised: 02/04/2021] [Accepted: 02/05/2021] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The potential of using ground birch (Betula verrucosa Ehrh.) bark as an eco-friendly additive in urea-formaldehyde (UF) adhesives for plywood manufacturing was investigated in this work. Five-ply plywood panels were fabricated in the laboratory from beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) veneers bonded with UF adhesive formulations comprising three addition levels of birch bark (BB) as a filler (10%, 15%, and 20%). Two UF resin formulations filled with 10% and 20% wheat flour (WF) were used as reference samples. The mechanical properties (bending strength, modulus of elasticity and shear strength) of the laboratory-fabricated plywood panels, bonded with the addition of BB in the adhesive mixture, were evaluated and compared with the European standard requirements (EN 310 and EN 314-2). The mechanical strength of the plywood with the addition of BB in the adhesive mixture is acceptable and met the European standard requirements. Markedly, the positive effect of BB in the UF adhesive mixture on the reduction of formaldehyde emission from plywood panels was also confirmed. Initially, the most significant decrease in formaldehyde release (up to 14%) was measured for the plywood sample, produced with 15% BB. After four weeks, the decrease in formaldehyde was estimated up to 51% for the sample manufactured with 20% BB. The performed differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA), and derivative thermogravimetry (DTG), also confirmed the findings of the study. As this research demonstrated, BB as a waste or by-product of wood processing industry, can be efficiently utilized as an environmentally friendly, inexpensive alternative to WF as a filler in UF adhesive formulations for plywood manufacturing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roman Réh
- Faculty of Wood Sciences and Technology, Technical University in Zvolen, 960 01 Zvolen, Slovakia; (R.R.); (J.S.)
| | - Ľuboš Krišťák
- Faculty of Wood Sciences and Technology, Technical University in Zvolen, 960 01 Zvolen, Slovakia; (R.R.); (J.S.)
- Correspondence: (Ľ.K.); (P.A.)
| | - Ján Sedliačik
- Faculty of Wood Sciences and Technology, Technical University in Zvolen, 960 01 Zvolen, Slovakia; (R.R.); (J.S.)
| | - Pavlo Bekhta
- Department of Wood-Based Composites, Cellulose and Paper, Ukrainian National Forestry University, 79057 Lviv, Ukraine;
| | - Monika Božiková
- Faculty of Engineering, Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, 949 76 Nitra, Slovakia; (M.B.); (D.K.); (V.V.)
| | - Daniela Kunecová
- Faculty of Engineering, Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, 949 76 Nitra, Slovakia; (M.B.); (D.K.); (V.V.)
| | - Vlasta Vozárová
- Faculty of Engineering, Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, 949 76 Nitra, Slovakia; (M.B.); (D.K.); (V.V.)
| | - Eugenia Mariana Tudor
- Forest Products Technology and Timber Construction Department, Salzburg University of Applied Sciences, 5431 Kuchl, Austria;
- Faculty of Wood Engineering, Transilvania University of Brasov, 500036 Brasov, Romania
| | - Petar Antov
- Faculty of Forest Industry, University of Forestry, 1797 Sofia, Bulgaria;
- Correspondence: (Ľ.K.); (P.A.)
| | - Viktor Savov
- Faculty of Forest Industry, University of Forestry, 1797 Sofia, Bulgaria;
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Ismail AS, Jawaid M, Hamid NH, Yahaya R, Hassan A. Mechanical and Morphological Properties of Bio-Phenolic/Epoxy Polymer Blends. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26040773. [PMID: 33546097 PMCID: PMC7913153 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26040773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2020] [Revised: 12/23/2020] [Accepted: 12/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Polymer blends is a well-established and suitable method to produced new polymeric materials as compared to synthesis of a new polymer. The combination of two different types of polymers will produce a new and unique material, which has the attribute of both polymers. The aim of this work is to analyze mechanical and morphological properties of bio-phenolic/epoxy polymer blends to find the best formulation for future study. Bio-phenolic/epoxy polymer blends were fabricated using the hand lay-up method at different loading of bio-phenolic (5 wt%, 10 wt%, 15 wt%, 20 wt%, and 25 wt%) in the epoxy matrix whereas neat bio-phenolic and epoxy samples were also fabricated for comparison. Results indicated that mechanical properties were improved for bio-phenolic/epoxy polymer blends compared to neat epoxy and phenolic. In addition, there is no sign of phase separation in polymer blends. The highest tensile, flexural, and impact strength was shown by P-20(biophenolic-20 wt% and Epoxy-80 wt%) whereas P-25 (biophenolic-25 wt% and Epoxy-75 wt%) has the highest tensile and flexural modulus. Based on the finding, it is concluded that P-20 shows better overall mechanical properties among the polymer blends. Based on this finding, the bio-phenolic/epoxy blend with 20 wt% will be used for further study on flax-reinforced bio-phenolic/epoxy polymer blends.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmad Safwan Ismail
- Laboratory of Biocomposite Technology, Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM, Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia; (A.S.I.); (N.H.H.)
| | - Mohammad Jawaid
- Laboratory of Biocomposite Technology, Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM, Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia; (A.S.I.); (N.H.H.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +603-8946-6960
| | - Norul Hisham Hamid
- Laboratory of Biocomposite Technology, Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM, Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia; (A.S.I.); (N.H.H.)
- Department of Forest Production, Faculty of Forestry, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM, Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Ridwan Yahaya
- Science and Technology Research Institute for Defence, Kajang 43000, Selangor, Malaysia;
| | - Azman Hassan
- Faculty of Engineering, School of Chemical and Energy Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai, Johor Bharu 81310, Malaysia;
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Antov P, Savov V, Krišťák Ľ, Réh R, Mantanis GI. Eco-Friendly, High-Density Fiberboards Bonded with Urea-Formaldehyde and Ammonium Lignosulfonate. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:polym13020220. [PMID: 33435154 PMCID: PMC7827569 DOI: 10.3390/polym13020220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2020] [Revised: 12/31/2020] [Accepted: 01/06/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The potential of producing eco-friendly, formaldehyde-free, high-density fiberboard (HDF) panels from hardwood fibers bonded with urea-formaldehyde (UF) resin and a novel ammonium lignosulfonate (ALS) is investigated in this paper. HDF panels were fabricated in the laboratory by applying a very low UF gluing factor (3%) and ALS content varying from 6% to 10% (based on the dry fibers). The physical and mechanical properties of the fiberboards, such as water absorption (WA), thickness swelling (TS), modulus of elasticity (MOE), bending strength (MOR), internal bond strength (IB), as well as formaldehyde content, were determined in accordance with the corresponding European standards. Overall, the HDF panels exhibited very satisfactory physical and mechanical properties, fully complying with the standard requirements of HDF for use in load-bearing applications in humid conditions. Markedly, the formaldehyde content of the laboratory fabricated panels was extremely low, ranging between 0.7-1.0 mg/100 g, which is, in fact, equivalent to the formaldehyde release of natural wood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petar Antov
- Department of Mechanical Wood Technology, Faculty of Forest Industry, University of Forestry, 1797 Sofia, Bulgaria;
- Correspondence: (P.A.); (Ľ.K.)
| | - Viktor Savov
- Department of Mechanical Wood Technology, Faculty of Forest Industry, University of Forestry, 1797 Sofia, Bulgaria;
| | - Ľuboš Krišťák
- Faculty of Wood Sciences and Technology, Technical University in Zvolen, T. G. Masaryka 24, 960 01 Zvolen, Slovakia;
- Correspondence: (P.A.); (Ľ.K.)
| | - Roman Réh
- Faculty of Wood Sciences and Technology, Technical University in Zvolen, T. G. Masaryka 24, 960 01 Zvolen, Slovakia;
| | - George I. Mantanis
- Lab of Wood Science and Technology, Department of Forestry, Wood Sciences and Design, University of Thessaly, 43100 Karditsa, Greece;
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Melro E, Filipe A, Sousa D, Medronho B, Romano A. Revisiting lignin: a tour through its structural features, characterization methods and applications. NEW J CHEM 2021. [DOI: 10.1039/d0nj06234k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
A pedagogical overview of the main extraction procedures and structural features, characterization methods and state-of-the-art applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elodie Melro
- University of Coimbra
- CQC
- Department of Chemistry
- Rua Larga
- 3004-535 Coimbra
| | - Alexandra Filipe
- CIEPQPF
- Department of Chemical Engineering
- University of Coimbra
- Pólo II – R. Silvio Lima
- 3030-790 Coimbra
| | - Dora Sousa
- c5Lab – Edifício Central Park
- Rua Central Park 6
- 2795-242 Linda-a-Velha
- Portugal
| | - Bruno Medronho
- MED – Mediterranean Institute for Agriculture
- Environment and Development
- Universidade do Algarve
- Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia
- Campus de Gambelas
| | - Anabela Romano
- MED – Mediterranean Institute for Agriculture
- Environment and Development
- Universidade do Algarve
- Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia
- Campus de Gambelas
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