1
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Starodubtsev YN, Tsepelev VS, Konashkov VV, Tsepeleva NP. Melting, Solidification, and Viscosity Properties of Multicomponent Fe-Cu-Nb-Mo-Si-B Alloys with Low Aluminum Addition. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 17:474. [PMID: 38276413 PMCID: PMC10820111 DOI: 10.3390/ma17020474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2023] [Revised: 01/14/2024] [Accepted: 01/17/2024] [Indexed: 01/27/2024]
Abstract
Melting, solidification, and viscosity properties of multicomponent Fe-Cu-Nb-Mo-Si-B alloys with low aluminum addition (up to 0.42 at.% Al) were studied using an oscillating cup viscometer. It is shown that melting and solidification are divided into two stages with a knee point at 1461 K. The temperature dependences of the liquid fraction between the liquidus and solidus temperatures during melting and solidification are calculated. It has been proven that aluminum accelerates the processes of melting and solidification and leads to an increase in liquidus and solidus temperatures. In the liquid state at temperatures above 1700 K in an alloy with a low aluminum content, the activation energy of viscous flow increases. This growth was associated with the liquid-liquid structure transition, caused by the formation of large clusters based on the metastable Fe23B6 phase. Aluminum atoms attract iron and boron atoms and contribute to the formation of clusters based on the Fe2AlB2 phase and metastable phases of a higher order.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuri N. Starodubtsev
- Gammamet Research and Production Enterprise, Yekaterinburg 620131, Russia;
- Research Center for Physics of Metal Liquid, Ural Federal University, Yekaterinburg 620002, Russia; (V.V.K.); (N.P.T.)
| | - Vladimir S. Tsepelev
- Research Center for Physics of Metal Liquid, Ural Federal University, Yekaterinburg 620002, Russia; (V.V.K.); (N.P.T.)
| | - Viktor V. Konashkov
- Research Center for Physics of Metal Liquid, Ural Federal University, Yekaterinburg 620002, Russia; (V.V.K.); (N.P.T.)
| | - Nadezhda P. Tsepeleva
- Research Center for Physics of Metal Liquid, Ural Federal University, Yekaterinburg 620002, Russia; (V.V.K.); (N.P.T.)
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2
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Lee JH, Kim YW, Kim DJ, Chung NK, Jung JK. Comparison of Two Methods for Measuring the Temperature Dependence of H 2 Permeation Parameters in Nitrile Butadiene Rubber Polymer Composites Blended with Fillers: The Volumetric Analysis Method and the Differential Pressure Method. Polymers (Basel) 2024; 16:280. [PMID: 38276688 PMCID: PMC10821381 DOI: 10.3390/polym16020280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2023] [Revised: 01/12/2024] [Accepted: 01/18/2024] [Indexed: 01/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Hydrogen uptake/diffusivity in nitrile butadiene rubber (NBR) blended with carbon black (CB) and silica fillers was measured with a volumetric analysis method in the 258-323 K temperature range. The temperature-dependent H2 diffusivity was obtained by assuming constant solubility with temperature variations. The logarithmic diffusivity decreased linearly with increasing reciprocal temperature. The diffusion activation energies were calculated with the Arrhenius equation. The activation energies for NBR blended with high-abrasion furnace CB and silica fillers increased linearly with increasing filler content. For NBR blended with medium thermal CB filler, the activation energy decreased with increasing filler content. The activation energy filler dependency is similar to the glass transition temperature filler dependency, as determined with dynamic mechanical analysis. Additionally, the activation energy was compared with that obtained by the differential pressure method through permeability temperature dependence. The same activation energy between diffusion and permeation in the range of 33-39 kJ/mol was obtained, supporting the temperature-independent H2 solubility and H2 physisorption in polymer composites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji Hun Lee
- Hydrogen Energy Materials Research Team, Korea Research Institute of Standards and Science, Daejeon 34113, Republic of Korea; (J.H.L.); (Y.W.K.); (D.J.K.)
- Department of Measurement Science, University of Science and Technology, 217 Gajeong-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34113, Republic of Korea
| | - Ye Won Kim
- Hydrogen Energy Materials Research Team, Korea Research Institute of Standards and Science, Daejeon 34113, Republic of Korea; (J.H.L.); (Y.W.K.); (D.J.K.)
- Department of Material Science and Engineering, Chungnam National University, 99, Daehak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34134, Republic of Korea
| | - Do Jung Kim
- Hydrogen Energy Materials Research Team, Korea Research Institute of Standards and Science, Daejeon 34113, Republic of Korea; (J.H.L.); (Y.W.K.); (D.J.K.)
| | - Nak Kwan Chung
- Hydrogen Energy Materials Research Team, Korea Research Institute of Standards and Science, Daejeon 34113, Republic of Korea; (J.H.L.); (Y.W.K.); (D.J.K.)
| | - Jae Kap Jung
- Hydrogen Energy Materials Research Team, Korea Research Institute of Standards and Science, Daejeon 34113, Republic of Korea; (J.H.L.); (Y.W.K.); (D.J.K.)
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3
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Aversa R, Ricciotti L, Perrotta V, Apicella A. Thermokinetic and Chemorheology of the Geopolymerization of an Alumina-Rich Alkaline-Activated Metakaolin in Isothermal and Dynamic Thermal Scans. Polymers (Basel) 2024; 16:211. [PMID: 38257011 PMCID: PMC10819406 DOI: 10.3390/polym16020211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2023] [Revised: 01/06/2024] [Accepted: 01/09/2024] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Alkaline sodium hydroxide/sodium silicate-activating high-purity metakaolin geopolymerization is described in terms of metakaolin deconstruction in tetrahedral hydrate silicate [O[Si(OH)3]]- and aluminate [Al(OH)4]- ionic precursors followed by their reassembling in linear and branched sialates monomers that randomly copolymerize into an irregular crosslinked aluminosilicate network. The novelty of the approach resides in the concurrent thermo-calorimetric (differential scanning calorimetry, DSC) and rheological (dynamic mechanical analysis, DMA) characterizations of the liquid slurry during the transformation into a gel and a structural glassy solid. Tests were run either in temperature scan (1 °C/min) or isothermal (20 °C, 30 °C, 40 °C) cure conditions. A Gaussian functions deconvolution method has been applied to the DSC multi-peak thermograms to separate the kinetic contributions of the oligomer's concurrent reactions. DSC thermograms of all tested materials are well-fitted by a combination of three overlapping Gaussian curves that are associated with the initial linear low-molecular-weight (Mw) oligomers (P1) formation, oligomers branching into alumina-rich and silica-rich gels (P2), and inter- and intra-molecular crosslinking (P3). The loss factor has been used to define viscoelastic behavioral zones for each DMA rheo-thermogram operated in the same DSC thermal conditions. Macromolecular evolution and viscoelastic properties have been obtained by pairing the deconvoluted DSC thermograms with the viscoelastic behavioral zones of the DMA rheo-thermograms. Two main chemorheological behaviors have been identified relative to pre- and post-gelation separation of the viscoelastic liquid from the viscoelastic solid. Each comprises three behavioral zones, accounting for the concurrently occurring linear and branching oligomerization, aluminate-rich and silica-rich gel nucleations, crosslinking, and vitrification. A "rubbery plateau" in the loss factor path, observed for all the testing conditions, identifies a large behavioral transition zone dividing the incipient gelling liquid slurry from the material hard setting and vitrification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raffaella Aversa
- Advanced Materials Laboratory, Department of Architecture and Industrial Design, University of Campania Luigi Vanvitelli, Via San Lorenzo, 81031 Aversa, Italy; (L.R.); (V.P.)
| | | | | | - Antonio Apicella
- Advanced Materials Laboratory, Department of Architecture and Industrial Design, University of Campania Luigi Vanvitelli, Via San Lorenzo, 81031 Aversa, Italy; (L.R.); (V.P.)
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4
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Stricker A, Hilpmann S, Mansel A, Franke K, Schymura S. Radiolabeling of Micro-/Nanoplastics via In-Diffusion. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 13:2687. [PMID: 37836327 PMCID: PMC10574329 DOI: 10.3390/nano13192687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2023] [Revised: 09/25/2023] [Accepted: 09/26/2023] [Indexed: 10/15/2023]
Abstract
Micro- and nanoplastics are emerging pollutants with a concerning persistence in the environment. Research into their environmental impact requires addressing challenges related to sensitively and selectively detecting them in complex ecological media. One solution with great potential for alleviating these issues is using radiolabeling strategies. Here, we report the successful introduction of a 64Cu radiotracer into common microplastics, namely polyethylene, polyethylene terephthalate, polystyrene, polyamide, and polyvinylidene dichloride, which allows the sensitive detection of mere nanograms of substance. Utilizing a Hansen Solubility Parameter screening, we developed a swelling and in-diffusion process for tetraphenylporphyrin-complexed 64Cu, which permits one-pot labeling of polymer particles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Stricker
- Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf, Institute of Resource Ecology, Research Site Leipzig, Permoserstr. 15, 04318 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Stephan Hilpmann
- Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf, Institute of Resource Ecology, Bautzner Landstraße 400, 03148 Dresden, Germany
| | - Alexander Mansel
- Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf, Institute of Resource Ecology, Research Site Leipzig, Permoserstr. 15, 04318 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Karsten Franke
- Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf, Institute of Resource Ecology, Research Site Leipzig, Permoserstr. 15, 04318 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Stefan Schymura
- Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf, Institute of Resource Ecology, Research Site Leipzig, Permoserstr. 15, 04318 Leipzig, Germany
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Guazzotti V, Hendrich V, Gruner A, Störmer A, Welle F. Styrene Monomer Levels in Polystyrene-Packed Dairy Products from the Market versus Simulated Migration Testing. Foods 2023; 12:2609. [PMID: 37444347 DOI: 10.3390/foods12132609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2023] [Revised: 06/27/2023] [Accepted: 07/04/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023] Open
Abstract
In view of the fact that a specific migration limit (SML) is to be established in the near future for styrene monomer in plastic food contact materials (FCMs), data on the dietary exposure of the European population, as well as sensitive and reliable analytical methodologies to implement compliance testing, are needed. The properties of the substance styrene as well as those of styrenic polymers pose challenges for analysts and their design of experimental migration tests. The aim of this study was to assess the level of styrene in polystyrene (PS)-packed dairy products from supermarkets and compare these values with the results from simulated migration testing. In addition to the conventional food simulant and test conditions described in Regulation (EU) No 10/2011 for refrigerated dairy products (50% ethanol for 10 days at 40 °C), milder simulants and test conditions (10% ethanol and 20% ethanol for 10 days at 40 °C and 20 °C) were investigated. Styrene levels in the investigated foods ranged from 2.8 µg/kg to 22.4 µg/kg. The use of 50% ethanol causes interactions with PS (swelling) that do not occur with dairy products and leads to highly exaggerated migration results. In contrast, testing PS for 10 days at 40 °C with 10% and 20% ethanol leads to higher styrene migration levels than found in real food, which are still conservative but far less extreme. Testing PS for 10 days at 20 °C leads to styrene migration levels that are more comparable to, but still overestimate, those found in real food products stored under refrigerated conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valeria Guazzotti
- Fraunhofer Institute for Process Engineering and Packaging, IVV, Giggenhauser Straße 35, 85354 Freising, Germany
| | - Veronika Hendrich
- Fraunhofer Institute for Process Engineering and Packaging, IVV, Giggenhauser Straße 35, 85354 Freising, Germany
| | - Anita Gruner
- Fraunhofer Institute for Process Engineering and Packaging, IVV, Giggenhauser Straße 35, 85354 Freising, Germany
| | - Angela Störmer
- Fraunhofer Institute for Process Engineering and Packaging, IVV, Giggenhauser Straße 35, 85354 Freising, Germany
| | - Frank Welle
- Fraunhofer Institute for Process Engineering and Packaging, IVV, Giggenhauser Straße 35, 85354 Freising, Germany
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Ramezanzadeh M, Slowinski S, Rezanezhad F, Murr K, Lam C, Smeaton C, Alibert C, Vandergriendt M, Van Cappellen P. Effects of freeze-thaw cycles on methanogenic hydrocarbon degradation: Experiment and modeling. CHEMOSPHERE 2023; 325:138405. [PMID: 36931401 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.138405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2022] [Revised: 03/08/2023] [Accepted: 03/13/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Cold regions are warming much faster than the global average, resulting in more frequent and intense freeze-thaw cycles (FTCs) in soils. In hydrocarbon-contaminated soils, FTCs modify the biogeochemical and physical processes controlling petroleum hydrocarbon (PHC) biodegradation and the associated generation of methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2). Thus, understanding the effects of FTCs on the biodegradation of PHCs is critical for environmental risk assessment and the design of remediation strategies for contaminated soils in cold regions. In this study, we developed a diffusion-reaction model that accounts for the effects of FTCs on toluene biodegradation, including methanogenic biodegradation. The model is verified against data generated in a 215 day-long batch experiment with soil collected from a PHC contaminated site in Ontario, Canada. The fully saturated soil incubations with six different treatments were exposed to successive 4-week FTCs, with temperatures oscillating between -10 °C and +15 °C, under anoxic conditions to stimulate methanogenic biodegradation. We measured the headspace concentrations and 13C isotope compositions of CH4 and CO2 and analyzed the porewater for pH, acetate, dissolved organic and inorganic carbon, and toluene. The numerical model represents solute diffusion, volatilization, sorption, as well as a reaction network of 13 biogeochemical processes. The model successfully simulates the soil porewater and headspace concentration time series data by representing the temperature dependencies of microbial reaction and gas diffusion rates during FTCs. According to the model results, the observed increases in the headspace concentrations of CH4 and CO2 by 87% and 136%, respectively, following toluene addition are explained by toluene fermentation and subsequent methanogenesis reactions. The experiment and the numerical simulation show that methanogenic degradation is the primary toluene attenuation mechanism under the electron acceptor-limited conditions experienced by the soil samples, representing 74% of the attenuation, with sorption contributing to 11%, and evaporation contributing to 15%. Also, the model-predicted contribution of acetate-based methanogenesis to total produced CH4 agrees with that derived from the 13C isotope data. The freezing-induced soil matrix organic carbon release is considered as an important process causing DOC increase following each freezing period according to the calculations of carbon balance and SUVA index. The simulation results of a no FTC scenario indicate that, in the absence of FTCs, CO2 and CH4 generation would decrease by 29% and 26%, respectively, and that toluene would be biodegraded 23% faster than in the FTC scenario. Because our modeling approach represents the dominant processes controlling PHC biodegradation and the associated CH4 and CO2 fluxes, it can be used to analyze the sensitivity of these processes to FTC frequency and duration driven by temperature fluctuations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mehdi Ramezanzadeh
- Ecohydrology Research Group, Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences and Water Institute, University of Waterloo, Canada.
| | - Stephanie Slowinski
- Ecohydrology Research Group, Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences and Water Institute, University of Waterloo, Canada
| | - Fereidoun Rezanezhad
- Ecohydrology Research Group, Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences and Water Institute, University of Waterloo, Canada
| | - Kathleen Murr
- Ecohydrology Research Group, Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences and Water Institute, University of Waterloo, Canada
| | - Christina Lam
- Ecohydrology Research Group, Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences and Water Institute, University of Waterloo, Canada
| | - Christina Smeaton
- School of Science and the Environment, Grenfell Campus, Memorial University of Newfoundland, Canada
| | - Clement Alibert
- Ecohydrology Research Group, Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences and Water Institute, University of Waterloo, Canada
| | - Marianne Vandergriendt
- Ecohydrology Research Group, Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences and Water Institute, University of Waterloo, Canada
| | - Philippe Van Cappellen
- Ecohydrology Research Group, Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences and Water Institute, University of Waterloo, Canada
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Khan M, Nath D, Khalifi M, Hassanzadeh H. Measurements and Modeling of the Dissolution and Exsolution Kinetics of the Ethane/ n-Heptane System. Ind Eng Chem Res 2022. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.iecr.2c03454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mansoor Khan
- Department of Chemical & Petroleum Engineering, Schulich School of Engineering, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta T2N 1N4, Canada
| | - Devjyoti Nath
- Department of Chemical & Petroleum Engineering, Schulich School of Engineering, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta T2N 1N4, Canada
| | - Mohammad Khalifi
- Department of Chemical & Petroleum Engineering, Schulich School of Engineering, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta T2N 1N4, Canada
| | - Hassan Hassanzadeh
- Department of Chemical & Petroleum Engineering, Schulich School of Engineering, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta T2N 1N4, Canada
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8
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Huang Q, Hassager O, Madsen J. Spatial Radical Distribution in Fractured Polymer Glasses and Melts Visualized Using a Profluorescent Nitroxide Probe. Macromolecules 2022. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.2c01594] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Qian Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, Polymer Research Institute, Sichuan University, 610065Chengdu, China
- Danish Polymer Centre, Department of Chemical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Ole Hassager
- Danish Polymer Centre, Department of Chemical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Jeppe Madsen
- Danish Polymer Centre, Department of Chemical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
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Packaging Weight, Filling Ratio and Filling Efficiency of Yogurt and Relevant Packagings Depending on Commercial Packaging Design, Material, Packaging Type and Filling Quantity. DAIRY 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/dairy3030046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Yogurt is a diverse dairy product category. It is available in different packaging designs made of different materials. To identify potential for improvement for these packagings, a better understanding about used materials and packaging efficiencies is necessary. For this study, 150 dairy products and some yogurt relevant desserts were bought from various supermarkets, street markets and discounters in the Munich region (Germany) in spring 2022. Commercial types of packaging are cups, buckets, pouches, bottles, glass packagings and bricks. The filling ratio of most packagings is above 70%, the rest of the volume is headspace. Poly(1-methylethylene) (PP) and poly(1-phenylethene) (PS) dominate as main materials for the different types of packaging. For bottle packagings, poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) and polyethene high-density (PE-HD) are used. Interestingly, poly(lactic acid) (PLA) is not found. Closures (caps) are responsible for 5 to 30% of the total packaging weight. Typical filling efficiencies are 20 to 40 g food product packaged in one gram of packaging material. For glass packagings, the values are 1.5 to 2 g food product packaged in one gram of packaging material. Therefore, plastic packaging results in an at least ten-times lower packaging use per unit of food, at single use packagings. With increasing product weights, we observe a tendency towards higher packaging efficiencies. By using paper/carton wrapping at cups, plastic use is reduced for the whole packaging.
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Migration of Styrene in Yogurt and Dairy Products Packaged in Polystyrene: Results from Market Samples. Foods 2022; 11:foods11142120. [PMID: 35885363 PMCID: PMC9323499 DOI: 10.3390/foods11142120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2022] [Revised: 07/12/2022] [Accepted: 07/14/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The European Food Safety Authority is re-evaluating styrene for assessing the safety of food contact materials (FCM) such as polystyrene (PS) and started a systematic review of the data on migration levels in food. A restriction for styrene is expected in the near future. The main food contact application of PS is dairy packaging, mainly at refrigerated storage. In this study, seventeen dairy products packed in PS taken from the Italian and German markets were investigated. Styrene concentrations in the refrigerated dairy products (yogurt, cream) ranged from 5 to 30 µg/kg at the best before date, while in single serving portions of coffee creamer, which were stored at room temperature until the best before date of approx. 190 days, 401 µg/kg were measured. Among several parameters, the ratio between the surface contact area of the package and the quantity of the food packed, the time/temperature conditions of production/filling and storage of the products were identified as the main factors influencing styrene migration into food under realistic conditions. Yogurts fermented in the pots for approximately 8 h at 40–50 °C showed higher styrene levels than those fermented in an incubator and filled at 20 °C. The fat content might influence the styrene level but the effect, if any, was too small in relation to the variability of other parameters. Levels of styrene migrating into 50% ethanol food simulant under standardized condition (10 days/40 °C) were found to be much higher than levels in refrigerated foods. This raises the question as to whether compliance testing for PS plastics should be adapted taking into consideration the correlation between migration testing by laboratory simulations and migration into real food.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catalin P. Gainaru
- Chemical Sciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37830, United States
| | - Alexei P. Sokolov
- Chemical Sciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37830, United States
- Department of Chemistry, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, United States
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12
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Nerín C, Bourdoux S, Faust B, Gude T, Lesueur C, Simat T, Stoermer A, Van Hoek E, Oldring P. Guidance in selecting analytical techniques for identification and quantification of non-intentionally added substances (NIAS) in food contact materials (FCMS). Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2022; 39:620-643. [PMID: 35081016 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2021.2012599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
There are numerous approaches and methodologies for assessing the identity and quantities of non-intentionally added substances (NIAS) in food contact materials (FCMs). They can give different results and it can be difficult to make meaningful comparisons. The initial approach was to attempt to prepare a prescriptive methodology but as this proved impossible; this paper develops guidelines that need to be taken into consideration when assessing NIAS. Different approaches to analysing NIAS in FCMs are reviewed and compared. The approaches for preparing the sample for analysis, recommended procedures for screening, identification, and quantification of NIAS as well as the reporting requirements are outlined. Different analytical equipment and procedures are compared. Limitations of today's capabilities are raised along with some research needs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Nerín
- Grupo Universitario de Investigación Analítica, Universidad de Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain
| | | | - Birgit Faust
- Toxicology and Environmental Research and Consulting (TERC), Dow Olefinverbund GmbH, Schkopau, Germany
| | - Thomas Gude
- Swiss Quality Testing Services, Dietikon, Switzerland
| | - Céline Lesueur
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Danone, Paris, France
| | - Thomas Simat
- Department of Chemistry and Food Chemistry, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Angela Stoermer
- Fraunhofer Institute Process Engineering and Packaging, Freising, Germany
| | - Els Van Hoek
- Organic Contaminants & Additives, Sciensano, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Peter Oldring
- Regulatory Affairs Department, Sherwin Williams, Witney, UK
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Migration Testing of GPPS and HIPS Polymers: Swelling Effect Caused by Food Simulants Compared to Real Foods. Molecules 2022; 27:molecules27030823. [PMID: 35164087 PMCID: PMC8839621 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27030823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2021] [Revised: 01/15/2022] [Accepted: 01/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Migration kinetic data from general purpose polystyrene (GPPS) and high impact polystyrene (HIPS) were generated for a set of model substances as well as styrene monomer and oligomers at different temperatures (20 °C, 40 °C, 60 °C) using food simulants stipulated in the European Regulation (EU) 10/2011 and real foods like milk, cream and olive oil (20 °C, 40 °C). The extent of polymer swelling was characterized gravimetrically and visual changes of the test specimens after migration contact were recorded. Isooctane and 95% ethanol caused strong swelling and visual changes of HIPS, overestimating real migration into foods especially at high temperatures; GPPS was affected by isooctane only at 60 °C. With 50% ethanol, after 10 days contact at 60 °C or 40 °C both polymers were slightly swollen. Contrary, most of the real foods analyzed caused no detectable swelling or visual changes of the investigated polymers. This study demonstrates that the recommendations provided by EU regulations are not always in agreement with the physicochemical properties of styrenic polymers. The critical point remains the selection of adequate food simulants/testing conditions, since the high overestimation of aggressive media can lead to non-compliance of polystyrene materials even if the migration into real food would be of no concern.
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14
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Recycling of Post-Consumer Packaging Materials into New Food Packaging Applications—Critical Review of the European Approach and Future Perspectives. SUSTAINABILITY 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/su14020824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The European strategy for plastics, as part of the EU’s circular economy action plan, should support the reduction in plastic waste. One key element in this action plan is the improvement of the economics and quality of recycled plastics. In addition, an important goal is that by 2030, all plastics packaging placed on the EU market must either be reusable or can be recycled in a cost-effective manner. This means that, at the end, a closed-loop recycling of food packaging materials should be established. However, the use of recyclates must not result in less severe preventive consumer protection of food packaging materials. This may lead to a conservative evaluation of authorities on post-consumer recyclates in food packaging applications. On the other hand, over-conservatism might over-protect the consumer and generate insurmountable barriers to the application of post-consumer recyclates for food packaging and, hence, counteract the targets of circular economy. The objective of this review is to provide an insight into the evaluation of post-consumer recyclates applied in direct contact to food. Safety assessment criteria as developed by the European Food Safety Authority EFSA will be presented, explained, and critically discussed.
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15
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Impact of Partitioning in Short-Term Food Contact Applications Focused on Polymers in Support of Migration Modelling and Exposure Risk Assessment. Molecules 2021; 27:molecules27010121. [PMID: 35011358 PMCID: PMC8746823 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27010121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2021] [Revised: 12/22/2021] [Accepted: 12/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Food contact materials (FCMs) can transfer chemicals arising from their manufacture to food before consumption. Regulatory frameworks ensure consumer safety by prescribing methods for the assessment of FCMs that rely on migration testing either into real-life foods or food simulants. Standard migration testing conditions for single-use FCMs are justifiably conservative, employing recognized worst-case contact times and temperatures. For repeated-use FCMs, the third of three consecutive tests using worst-case conditions is taken as a surrogate of the much shorter contact period that often occurs over the service life of these items. Food contact regulations allow for the use of migration modelling for the chemicals in the FCM and for the partitioning that occurs between the FCM and food/simulant during prolonged contact, under which steady-state conditions are favored. This study demonstrates that the steady-state is rarely reached under repeated-use conditions and that partitioning plays a minor role that results in migration essentially being diffusion controlled. Domains of use have been identified within which partitioning does not play a significant role, allowing modelling based upon diffusion parameters to be used. These findings have the potential to advance the modelling of migration from repeated-use articles for the benefit of regulatory guidance and compliance practices.
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Kontou S, Dessipri E, Lampi E. Determination of styrene monomer migrating in foodstuffs from polystyrene food contact articles using HS-SPME-GC-MS/MS: Results from the Greek market. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2021; 39:415-427. [PMID: 34913404 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2021.2005830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
In this study, a sensitive, accurate and fast headspace - solid phase microextraction - gas chromatography - tandem mass spectrometry method (HS-SPME-GC-MS/MS) was developed and validated for the determination of styrene in various food matrices (mean recovery ranged from 90 to 116% with a relative standard deviation of ≤11%). The method was used for the determination of the concentration of styrene in 23 foodstuffs packed in polystyrene (PS) containers, as well as the levels of styrene migrating into various foods (water, milk, cheese or cream) from 14 tableware or kitchenware articles made of styrene plastics. All samples were collected from the Greek market in 2020. Styrene concentrations in the packaged foods ranged from 0.4 to 160 ng g-1 with the highest concentration found in a meat product packed in a foamed PS tray. It is worth noting that 56% of PS packaged dairy products and desserts had a styrene concentration higher than 10 ng g-1. Particularly high levels of styrene that have not previously been reported, up to 46 ng g-1, were found in dairy products for children. The highest level of styrene migration from tableware or kitchenware articles, 89 ng g-1, was observed when disposable cups from foamed PS were filled with milk at 70℃ for 2 hours. The implications of these findings for the assessment of the potential exposure of the Greek consumers to styrene migrating from PS food contact materials are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stella Kontou
- Food Contact Materials Laboratory, 2 Chemical Service of Athens, General Chemical State Laboratory, Athens, Greece
| | - Eugenia Dessipri
- Food Contact Materials Laboratory, 2 Chemical Service of Athens, General Chemical State Laboratory, Athens, Greece
| | - Eugenia Lampi
- Food Contact Materials Laboratory, 2 Chemical Service of Athens, General Chemical State Laboratory, Athens, Greece
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