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Jalaee A, Foster EJ. Improvement in the Thermomechanical Properties and Adhesion of Wood Fibers to the Polyamide 6 Matrix by Sequential Ball Milling Technique. ACS SUSTAINABLE CHEMISTRY & ENGINEERING 2024; 12:490-500. [PMID: 38213545 PMCID: PMC10777450 DOI: 10.1021/acssuschemeng.3c06351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2023] [Revised: 11/28/2023] [Accepted: 11/28/2023] [Indexed: 01/13/2024]
Abstract
The engineering thermoplastics industry has largely limited the use of natural fiber reinforcements due to their susceptibility to low-onset thermal degradation and water absorption. Therefore, in order to utilize these economically viable and environmentally friendly materials effectively through common composite fabrication methods such as hot pressing, safeguarding them from thermal degradation becomes essential. This work presents a viable industrially technique called sequential ball milling for processing unbleached softwood kraft pulp fibers (PF) with an engineering thermoplastics polyamide 6 (PA6) with high melting temperatures (>220 °C). An additional eco-friendly modification step that employs ball milling and cellulose nanocrystal (CNC) has been implemented in this study to enhance the mechanical properties of the composites. Special attention is given to fine-tuning key variables, such as milling duration and PF particle size, to produce optimal composites. Leveraging the ability of sequential ball milling to evenly distribute pulp fibers into PA6, a 160% increase in Young's modulus was achieved with the incorporation of 30 wt % PF. Importantly, the introduction of a 5 wt % CNC modifying agent elevated Young's modulus to 4.3 GPa, marking a 187% improvement over unmodified PA6. Diverse techniques, including rheological analyses, thermomechanical evaluations, morphological examinations, and assessments of moisture absorption, were utilized to validate the efficiency of the suggested processing approach and the modification phase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adel Jalaee
- Department of Chemical and
Biological Engineering, BioProducts Institute, University of British Columbia, 2360 East Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - E. Johan Foster
- Department of Chemical and
Biological Engineering, BioProducts Institute, University of British Columbia, 2360 East Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z3, Canada
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Jalaee A, Kamkar M, French V, Rojas OJ, Foster EJ. Direct milling: Efficient, facile, and green method for processing fibrillated cellulose/polymeric nanocomposites with boosted thermomechanical and rheological performance. Carbohydr Polym 2023; 314:120932. [PMID: 37173030 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2023.120932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2023] [Revised: 04/13/2023] [Accepted: 04/16/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Bringing biobased nanomaterials into polymer manufacturing is essential to enhance polymers' properties and address the challenges posed by plastic waste. Using polymers such as polyamide 6 (PA6) in advanced industries, e.g., automotive sector, has been impeded as a direct consequence of their inability to meet the required mechanical properties. Herein, we utilize bio-based cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) to enhance the properties of PA6 by green processing, with no footprint on the environment. We address the issue of the dispersion of the nanofillers in polymeric matrices and demonstrate direct milling (cryo-milling and planetary ball milling) to facilitate a thorough integration of the components. Nanocomposites incorporating 1.0 wt% CNF, processed by pre-milling followed by compression molding, are shown to possess a storage modulus of 3.8 ± 0.2 GPa, Young's modulus of 2.9 ± 0.2 GPa, and ultimate tensile strength of 63 ± 3 MPa (all measured at room temperature). To show the superiority of direct milling in achieving these properties, other frequent approaches used to disperse CNF in polymers, such as solvent casting and hand mixing, are meticulously investigated and compared for the performance of their resulting specimens. The ball-milling method is demonstrated to provide PA6-CNF nanocomposites with excellent performance, better than solvent casting, with no associated environmental concerns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adel Jalaee
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, BioProducts Institute, University of British Columbia, 2360 East Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Milad Kamkar
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, BioProducts Institute, University of British Columbia, 2360 East Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z3, Canada; Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Waterloo, Ontario, Waterloo, Canada
| | - Victoria French
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, BioProducts Institute, University of British Columbia, 2360 East Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Orlando J Rojas
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, BioProducts Institute, University of British Columbia, 2360 East Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z3, Canada; Department of Chemistry and Department of Wood Science, University of Bristish Columbia, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver V6T 1Z1, Canada
| | - E Johan Foster
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, BioProducts Institute, University of British Columbia, 2360 East Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z3, Canada.
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Perin D, Dorigato A, Pegoretti A. Thermoplastic
self‐healing
polymer blends for structural composites: Development of polyamide 6 and cyclic olefinic copolymer blends. J Appl Polym Sci 2023. [DOI: 10.1002/app.53751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/22/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- D. Perin
- Department of Industrial Engineering and INSTM Research Unit University of Trento Trento Italy
| | - A. Dorigato
- Department of Industrial Engineering and INSTM Research Unit University of Trento Trento Italy
| | - A. Pegoretti
- Department of Industrial Engineering and INSTM Research Unit University of Trento Trento Italy
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Völtz LR, Geng S, Teleman A, Oksman K. Influence of Dispersion and Orientation on Polyamide-6 Cellulose Nanocomposites Manufactured through Liquid-Assisted Extrusion. NANOMATERIALS 2022; 12:nano12050818. [PMID: 35269306 PMCID: PMC8912402 DOI: 10.3390/nano12050818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2022] [Revised: 02/24/2022] [Accepted: 02/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
In this study, the possibility of adding nanocellulose and its dispersion to polyamide 6 (PA6), a polymer with a high melting temperature, is investigated using melt extrusion. The main challenges of the extrusion of these materials are achieving a homogeneous dispersion and avoiding the thermal degradation of nanocellulose. These challenges are overcome by using an aqueous suspension of never-dried nanocellulose, which is pumped into the molten polymer without any chemical modification or drying. Furthermore, polyethylene glycol is tested as a dispersant for nanocellulose. The dispersion, thermal degradation, and mechanical and viscoelastic properties of the nanocomposites are studied. The results show that the dispersant has a positive impact on the dispersion of nanocellulose and that the liquid-assisted melt compounding does not cause the degradation of nanocellulose. The addition of only 0.5 wt.% nanocellulose increases the stiffness of the neat polyamide 6 from 2 to 2.3 GPa and shifts the tan δ peak toward higher temperatures, indicating an interaction between PA6 and nanocellulose. The addition of the dispersant decreases the strength and modulus but has a significant effect on the elongation and toughness. To further enhance the mechanical properties of the nanocomposites, solid-state drawing is used to create an oriented structure in the polymer and nanocomposites. The orientation greatly improves its mechanical properties, and the oriented nanocomposite with polyethylene glycol as dispersant exhibits the best alignment and properties: with orientation, the strength increases from 52 to 221 MPa, modulus from 1.4 to 2.8 GPa, and toughness 30 to 33 MJ m−3 in a draw ratio of 2.5. This study shows that nanocellulose can be added to PA6 by liquid-assisted extrusion with good dispersion and without degradation and that the orientation of the structure is a highly-effective method for producing thermoplastic nanocomposites with excellent mechanical properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luísa Rosenstock Völtz
- Division of Materials Science, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Luleå University of Technology, SE-97187 Luleå, Sweden; (L.R.V.); (S.G.)
- Wallenberg Wood Science Center (WWSC), Luleå University of Technology, SE-97187 Luleå, Sweden
| | - Shiyu Geng
- Division of Materials Science, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Luleå University of Technology, SE-97187 Luleå, Sweden; (L.R.V.); (S.G.)
- Wallenberg Wood Science Center (WWSC), Luleå University of Technology, SE-97187 Luleå, Sweden
| | - Anita Teleman
- RISE Research Institutes of Sweden, SE-11486 Stockholm, Sweden;
| | - Kristiina Oksman
- Division of Materials Science, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Luleå University of Technology, SE-97187 Luleå, Sweden; (L.R.V.); (S.G.)
- Wallenberg Wood Science Center (WWSC), Luleå University of Technology, SE-97187 Luleå, Sweden
- Department of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering (MIE), University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3G8, Canada
- Correspondence:
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Sridhara PK, Masso F, Olsén P, Vilaseca F. Strong Polyamide-6 Nanocomposites with Cellulose Nanofibers Mediated by Green Solvent Mixtures. NANOMATERIALS 2021; 11:nano11082127. [PMID: 34443955 PMCID: PMC8401965 DOI: 10.3390/nano11082127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2021] [Revised: 08/13/2021] [Accepted: 08/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Cellulose nanofiber (CNF) as a bio-based reinforcement has attracted tremendous interests in engineering polymer composites. This study developed a sustainable approach to reinforce polyamide-6 or nylon-6 (PA6) with CNFs through solvent casting in formic acid/water mixtures. The methodology provides an energy-efficient pathway towards well-dispersed high-CNF content PA6 biocomposites. Nanocomposite formulations up to 50 wt.% of CNFs were prepared, and excellent improvements in the tensile properties were observed, with an increase in the elastic modulus from 1.5 to 4.2 GPa, and in the tensile strength from 46.3 to 124 MPa. The experimental tensile values were compared with the analytical values obtained by micromechanical models. Fractured surfaces were observed using scanning electron microscopy to examine the interface morphology. FTIR revealed strong hydrogen bonding at the interface, and the thermal parameters were determined using TGA and DSC, where the nanocomposites' crystallinity tended to reduce with the increase in the CNF content. In addition, nanocomposites showed good thermomechanical stability for all formulations. Overall, this work provides a facile fabrication pathway for high-CNF content nanocomposites of PA6 for high-performance and advanced material applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pruthvi K. Sridhara
- Advanced Biomaterials and Nanotechnology, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Girona, 17003 Girona, Spain;
| | - Ferran Masso
- Department of Fiber and Polymer Technology, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, 10044 Stockholm, Sweden; (F.M.); (P.O.)
| | - Peter Olsén
- Department of Fiber and Polymer Technology, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, 10044 Stockholm, Sweden; (F.M.); (P.O.)
| | - Fabiola Vilaseca
- Advanced Biomaterials and Nanotechnology, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Girona, 17003 Girona, Spain;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +34-667-292-597
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