Development of Natural Polysaccharide-Based Nanoparticles of Berberine to Enhance Oral Bioavailability: Formulation, Optimization, Ex Vivo, and In Vivo Assessment

Berberine, a natural alkaloid: Advances in its pharmacological effects and mechanisms in the treatment of autoimmune diseases

The rising prevalence of autoimmune diseases poses a significant challenge to global public health. Continual exploration of natural compounds for effective treatments for autoimmune diseases is crucial. Berberine, a benzylisoquinoline alkaloid, is a bioactive component found in various medicinal plants, exhibiting diverse pharmacological properties. This review aims to consolidate the current understanding of berberine's pharmacological effects and mechanisms in addressing four autoimmune diseases: rheumatoid arthritis, multiple sclerosis, inflammatory bowel disease, and psoriasis. Overall, as a traditional Chinese medicinal preparation, berberine shows promise as an effective and safe treatment for autoimmune diseases. However, further comprehensive studies, particularly clinical trials, are essential to elucidate additional mechanisms and molecular targets, as well as to assess the efficacy and safety of berberine in treating these autoimmune diseases.

Berberine Effects in Pre-Fibrotic Stages of Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease-Clinical and Pre-Clinical Overview and Systematic Review of the Literature

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is the predominant cause of chronic liver conditions, and its progression is marked by evolution to non-alcoholic steatosis, steatohepatitis, cirrhosis related to non-alcoholic steatohepatitis, and the potential occurrence of hepatocellular carcinoma. In our systematic review, we searched two databases, Medline (via Pubmed Central) and Scopus, from inception to 5 February 2024, and included 73 types of research (nine clinical studies and 64 pre-clinical studies) from 2854 published papers. Our extensive research highlights the impact of Berberine on NAFLD pathophysiology mechanisms, such as Adenosine Monophosphate-Activated Protein Kinase (AMPK), gut dysbiosis, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR), Sirtuins, and inflammasome. Studies involving human subjects showed a measurable reduction of liver fat in addition to improved profiles of serum lipids and hepatic enzymes. While current drugs for NAFLD treatment are either scarce or still in development or launch phases, Berberine presents a promising profile. However, improvements in its formulation are necessary to enhance the bioavailability of this natural substance.

Self-Emulsifying Drug Delivery System for Enhanced Oral Delivery of Tenofovir: Formulation, Physicochemical Characterization, and Bioavailability Assessment

Tenofovir (TNF) is a common component of many antiretroviral therapy regimens, but it is associated with poor membrane permeability and low oral bioavailability. To improve its oral bioavailability and membrane permeability, a self-emulsifying drug delivery system (SEDDS) was developed and characterized, and its relative bioavailability was compared to the marketed tablets (Tenof). Based on solubility and ternary phase diagram analysis, eucalyptus oil was selected as an oil phase, Kolliphor EL, and Kollisolv MCT 70 were chosen as surfactant and cosurfactant, respectively, while glycerol was used as cosolvent in surfactant mixture. Optimized SEDDS formulation F6 showed an oil droplet size of 98.82 nm and zeta potential of -13.03 mV, indicating the high stability of oil droplets. Differential scanning calorimetry, X-ray diffraction, and scanning electron microscopy characterization studies were also carried out to assess the amorphous and morphological states of the drug in the prepared SEDDS formulation. The in vitro dissolution profile of SEDDS shows the rapid release of the drug. SEDDS F6 demonstrates a higher drug permeability than the plain TNF and TNF-marketed tablets (Tenof). A pharmacokinetic study in rats revealed that SEDDS F6 showed significantly higher Cmax and AUC0-t than the marketed tablets and pure drug suspension. In addition, the relative bioavailability of SEDDS formulation dramatically improved by 21.53-fold compared to marketed tablets and 66.27-fold compared to pure drugs. These findings show that SEDDS composed of eucalyptus oil, glycerol, Kolliphor EL, and Kollisolv MCT 70 could be a useful tool for enhancing physiochemical properties and oral TNF absorption. Therefore, SEDDS has shown promise in improving the oral bioavailability of poorly water-soluble drugs.

Research progress on antidepressant effects and mechanisms of berberine

Depression, a global health problem with growing prevalence, brings serious impacts on the daily life of patients. However, the antidepressants currently used in clinical are not perfectly effective, which greatly reduces the compliance of patients. Berberine is a natural quaternary alkaloid which has been shown to have a variety of pharmacological effects, such as hypoglycemic, lipid-regulation, anti-cancer, antibacterial, anti-oxidation, anti-inflammatory, and antidepressant. This review summarizes the evidence of pharmacological applications of berberine in treating depression and elucidates the mechanisms of berberine regulating neurotransmitter levels, promoting the regeneration of hippocampal neurons, improving hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis dysfunction, anti-oxidative stress, and suppressing inflammatory status in order to provide a reference for further research and clinical application of berberine.

Evidence-based herbal treatments in liver diseases

The liver is the main organ for metabolic and detoxification reactions in the body. Therefore, its diseases can be associated with both metabolic disorders, such as insulin resistance, obesity, diabetes, or dyslipidemia, and exogenous insults such as drugs, xenobiotics, or alcohol. Indeed, lifestyle changes are the primary approaches for the prevention and treatment of liver diseases. Since ancient times, herbals have also been used for preventive and therapeutic purposes, because of their anti-apoptotic, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant effects. Here, the literature was reviewed for potential therapeutic effects of plants and their compounds by including in vitro and in vivo studies, as well as clinical trials. Although the available data imply some beneficial roles of herbals on the liver, the indications and posology of specific plants need to be clarified through multicenter, randomized clinical trials.

Enhanced drug delivery and wound healing potential of berberine-loaded chitosan-alginate nanocomposite gel: characterization and in vivo assessment

Berberine-encapsulated polyelectrolyte nanocomposite (BR-PolyET-NC) gel was developed as a long-acting improved wound healing therapy. BR-PolyET-NC was developed using an ionic gelation/complexation method and thereafter loaded into Carbopol gel. Formulation was optimized using Design-Expert® software implementing a three-level, three-factor Box Behnken design (BBD). The concentrations of polymers, namely, chitosan and alginate, and calcium chloride were investigated based on particle size and %EE. Moreover, formulation characterized in vitro for biopharmaceutical performances and their wound healing potency was evaluated in vivo in adult BALB/c mice. The particle distribution analysis showed a nanocomposite size of 71 ± 3.5 nm, polydispersity index (PDI) of 0.45, ζ-potential of +22 mV, BR entrapment of 91 ± 1.6%, and loading efficiency of 12.5 ± 0.91%. Percentage drug release was recorded as 89.50 ± 6.9% with pH 6.8, thereby simulating the wound microenvironment. The in vitro investigation of the nanocomposite gel revealed uniform consistency, well spreadability, and extrudability, which are ideal for topical wound use. The analytical estimation executed using FT-IR, DSC, and X-ray diffraction (XRD) indicated successful formulation with no drug excipients and without the amorphous state. The colony count of microbes was greatly reduced in the BR-PolyET-NC treated group on the 15th day from up to 6 CFU compared to 20 CFU observed in the BR gel treated group. The numbers of monocytes and lymphocytes counts were significantly reduced following healing progression, which reached to a peak level and vanished on the 15th day. The observed experimental characterization and in vivo study indicated the effectiveness of the developed BR-PolyET-NC gel toward wound closure and healing process, and it was found that >99% of the wound closed by 15th day, stimulated via various anti-inflammatory and angiogenic factors.

Design-of-Experiment-Assisted Fabrication of Biodegradable Polymeric Nanoparticles: In Vitro Characterization, Biological Activity, and In Vivo Assessment

Berberine (BER) is an alkaloid obtained from berberis plant having broad biological activities including anticancer. BER-encapsulated alginate (ALG)/chitosan (CHS) nanoparticles (BER-ALG/CHS-NPs) were developed for long-acting improved treatment in breast cancer. The surface of the NPs was activated by a conjugation reaction, and thereafter, the BER-ALG/CHS-NP surface was grafted with folic acid (BER-ALG/CHS-NPs-F) for specific targeting in breast cancer. BER-ALG/CHS-NPs-F was optimized by applying the Box-Behnken design using Expert design software. Moreover, formulations are extensively evaluated in vitro for biopharmaceutical performances and tested for cell viability, cellular uptake, and antioxidant activity. The comparative pharmacokinetic study of formulation and free BER was carried out in animals for estimation of bioavailability. The particle size recorded for the diluted sample using a Malvern Zetasizer was 240 ± 5.6 nm. The ζ-potential and the predicted % entrapment efficiency versus (vs) observed were +18 mV and 83.25 ± 2.3% vs 85 ± 3.5%. The high % drug release from the NPs was recorded. The analytical studies executed using infrared spectroscopy, differential scanning calorimetry, and X-ray diffraction expressed safe combinations of the components in the formulation and physical state of the drug revealed to be amorphous in the formulation. Cytotoxicity testing demonstrated that the formulation effectively lowered the cell viability and IC50 of the tested cell line in comparison to a raw drug. The cellular uptake of BER-ALG/CHS-NPs-F was 5.5-fold higher than that of BER-suspension. The antioxidant capacities of BER-ALG/CHS-NPs-F vs BER-suspension by the DPPH assay were measured to be 62.3 ± 2.5% vs 30 ± 6%, indicating good radical scavenging power of folate-conjugated NPs. The developed formulation showed a 4.4-fold improved oral bioavailability compared to BER-suspension. The hemolytic assay intimated <2% destruction of erythrocytes by the developed formulation. The observed experimental characterization results such as cytotoxicity, cellular uptake, antioxidant activity, and improved absorption suggested the effectiveness of BER-ALG/CHS-NPs-F toward breast cancer.

pH-Responsive Upconversion Mesoporous Silica Nanospheres for Combined Multimodal Diagnostic Imaging and Targeted Photodynamic and Photothermal Cancer Therapy

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) and photothermal therapy (PTT) have gained considerable attention as potential alternatives to conventional cancer treatments. However, these approaches remain limited by low solubility, poor stability, and inefficient targeting of many common photosensitizers (PSs) and photothermal agents (PTAs). To overcome the aforementioned limitations, we engineered biocompatible and biodegradable tumor-targeted upconversion nanospheres with imaging capabilities. The multifunctional nanospheres consist of a sodium yttrium fluoride core doped with lanthanides (ytterbium, erbium, and gadolinium) and the PTA bismuth selenide (NaYF4:Yb/Er/Gd,Bi2Se3) enveloped in a mesoporous silica shell that encapsulates a PS, chlorin e6 (Ce6), within its pores. NaYF4:Yb/Er converts deeply penetrating near-infrared (NIR) light to visible light, which excites Ce6 to generate cytotoxic reactive oxygen species (ROS), while Bi2Se3 efficiently converts absorbed NIR light to heat. Additionally, Gd enables magnetic resonance imaging of the nanospheres. The mesoporous silica shell is coated with DPPC/cholesterol/DSPE-PEG to retain the encapsulated Ce6 and prevent serum protein adsorption and macrophage recognition that hinder tumor targeting. Finally, the coat is conjugated to the acidity-triggered rational membrane (ATRAM) peptide, which promotes specific and efficient internalization into malignant cells in the mildly acidic microenvironment of tumors. The nanospheres facilitated tumor magnetic resonance and thermal and fluorescence imaging and exhibited potent NIR laser light-induced anticancer effects in vitro and in vivo via combined ROS production and localized hyperthermia, with negligible toxicity to healthy tissue, hence markedly extending survival. Our results demonstrate that the ATRAM-functionalized, lipid/PEG-coated upconversion mesoporous silica nanospheres (ALUMSNs) offer multimodal diagnostic imaging and targeted combinatorial cancer therapy.

Self-Assembled Polymers for Gastrointestinal Tract Targeted Delivery through the Oral Route: An Update

Gastrointestinal tract (GIT) targeted drug delivery systems have gained growing attention as potential carriers for the treatment of different diseases, especially local colonic diseases. They have lower side effects as well as enhanced oral delivery efficiency because of various therapeutics that are vulnerable to acidic and enzymatic degradation in the upper GIT are protected. The novel and unique design of self-assembled nanostructures, such as micelles, hydrogels, and liposomes, which can both respond to external stimuli and be further modified, making them ideal for specific, targeted medical needs and localized drug delivery treatments through the oral route. Therefore, the aim of this review was to summarize and critically discuss the pharmaceutical significance and therapeutic feasibility of a wide range of natural and synthetic biomaterials for efficient drug targeting to GIT using the self-assembly method. Among various types of biomaterials, natural and synthetic polymer-based nanostructures have shown promising targeting potential due to their innate pH responsiveness, sustained and controlled release characteristics, and microbial degradation in the GIT that releases the encapsulated drug moieties.

Berberine-phospholipid nanoaggregate-embedded thiolated chitosan hydrogel for aphthous stomatitis treatment

Aim: This study aimed to develop nanoaggregates of berberine-phospholipid complex incorporated into thiolated chitosan (TCS) hydrogel for the treatment of aphthous stomatitis. Methods: The berberine-phospholipid complex was formulated through the solvent evaporation technique and assembled into nanoaggregates. TCS was synthesized through the attachment of thioglycolic acid to chitosan (CS). Nanoaggregates-TCS was prepared by the incorporation of nanoaggregates into TCS and underwent in vitro and in vivo tests. Results: Nanoaggregates-TCS exhibited prolonged release of berberine. The mucoadhesive strength of nanoaggregates-TCS increased 1.75-fold compared with CS hydrogel. In vivo studies revealed the superior therapeutic efficacy of nanoaggregates-TCS compared with that of other groups. Conclusion: Due to prolonged drug release, appropriate residence time and anti-inflammatory effects, nanoaggregates-TCS is an effective system for the treatment of aphthous stomatitis.

Polyphenols, Autophagy and Neurodegenerative Diseases: A Review

Polyphenols are secondary metabolites from plant origin and are shown to possess a wide range of therapeutic benefits. They are also reported as regulators of autophagy, inflammation and neurodegeneration. The autophagy pathway is vital in degrading outdated organelles, proteins and other cellular wastes. The dysregulation of autophagy causes proteinopathies, mitochondrial dysfunction and neuroinflammation thereby contributing to neurodegeneration. Evidence reveals that polyphenols improve autophagy by clearing misfolded proteins in the neurons, suppress neuroinflammation and oxidative stress and also protect from neurodegeneration. This review is an attempt to summarize the mechanism of action of polyphenols in modulating autophagy and their involvement in pathways such as mTOR, AMPK, SIRT-1 and ERK. It is evident that polyphenols cause an increase in the levels of autophagic proteins such as beclin-1, microtubule-associated protein light chain (LC3 I and II), sirtuin 1 (SIRT1), etc. Although it is apparent that polyphenols regulate autophagy, the exact interaction of polyphenols with autophagy markers is not known. These data require further research and will be beneficial in supporting polyphenol supplementation as a potential alternative treatment for regulating autophagy in neurodegenerative diseases.

Sodium alginate-based drug delivery for diabetes management: A review

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is among the biggest global health problems of the 21st century, which is characterised by insufficient insulin secretion and results in the augmentation of blood sugar levels. The current foundation of hyperglycemia therapy is oral antihyperglycemic medications like biguanides, sulphonylureas, α-glucosidase inhibitors, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-γ) agonists, sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 (SGLT-2) inhibitors, dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4) inhibitors and others. Many naturally occurring substances have shown promise in treating hyperglycemia. Inadequate prologitivity of action, restricted bioavailability, site specificity, and dose-related side effects are some problems with currently available anti-diabetic medications. Sodium alginate has shown promise as a drug delivery mechanism, potentially solving issues with current therapies for several substances. This review summarizes the research on the efficacy of drug delivery systems based on alginate for transporting oral hypoglycemic medicines, phytochemicals, and insulin for treating hyperglycemia.

Sustainable Biodegradable Biopolymer-Based Nanoparticles for Healthcare Applications

Biopolymeric nanoparticles are gaining importance as nanocarriers for various biomedical applications, enabling long-term and controlled release at the target site. Since they are promising delivery systems for various therapeutic agents and offer advantageous properties such as biodegradability, biocompatibility, non-toxicity, and stability compared to various toxic metal nanoparticles, we decided to provide an overview on this topic. Therefore, the review focuses on the use of biopolymeric nanoparticles of animal, plant, algal, fungal, and bacterial origin as a sustainable material for potential use as drug delivery systems. A particular focus is on the encapsulation of many different therapeutic agents categorized as bioactive compounds, drugs, antibiotics, and other antimicrobial agents, extracts, and essential oils into protein- and polysaccharide-based nanocarriers. These show promising benefits for human health, especially for successful antimicrobial and anticancer activity. The review article, divided into protein-based and polysaccharide-based biopolymeric nanoparticles and further according to the origin of the biopolymer, enables the reader to select the appropriate biopolymeric nanoparticles more easily for the incorporation of the desired component. The latest research results from the last five years in the field of the successful production of biopolymeric nanoparticles loaded with various therapeutic agents for healthcare applications are included in this review.

Chondroitin sulfate-based composites: a tour d'horizon of their biomedical applications

Chondroitin sulfate (CS), a natural anionic mucopolysaccharide, belonging to the glycosaminoglycan family, acts as the primary element of the extracellular matrix (ECM) of diverse organisms. It comprises repeating units of disaccharides possessing β-1,3-linked N-acetyl galactosamine (GalNAc), and β-1,4-linked D-glucuronic acid (GlcA), and exhibits antitumor, anti-inflammatory, anti-coagulant, anti-oxidant, and anti-thrombogenic activities. It is a naturally acquired bio-macromolecule with beneficial properties, such as biocompatibility, biodegradability, and immensely low toxicity, making it the center of attention in developing biomaterials for various biomedical applications. The authors have discussed the structure, unique properties, and extraction source of CS in the initial section of this review. Further, the current investigations on applications of CS-based composites in various biomedical fields, focusing on delivering active pharmaceutical compounds, tissue engineering, and wound healing, are discussed critically. In addition, the manuscript throws light on preclinical and clinical studies associated with CS composites. A short section on Chondroitinase ABC has also been canvassed. Finally, this review emphasizes the current challenges and prospects of CS in various biomedical fields.

Tap the sap - investigation of latex-bearing plants in the search of potential anticancer biopharmaceuticals

Latex-bearing plants have been in the research spotlight for the past couple of decades. Since ancient times their extracts have been used in folk medicine to treat various illnesses. Currently they serve as promising candidates for cancer treatment. Up to date there have been several in vitro and in vivo studies related to the topic of cytotoxicity and anticancer activity of extracts from latex-bearing plants towards various cell types. The number of clinical studies still remains scarce, however, over the years the number is systematically increasing. To the best of our knowledge, the scientific community is still lacking in a recent review summarizing the research on the topic of cytotoxicity and anticancer activity of latex-bearing plant extracts. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to review the current knowledge on in vitro and in vivo studies, which focus on the cytotoxicity and anticancer activities of latex-bearing plants. The vast majority of the studies are in vitro, however, the interest in this topic has resulted in the substantial growth of the number of in vivo studies, leading to a promising number of plant species whose latex can potentially be tested in clinical trials. The paper is divided into sections, each of them focuses on specific latex-bearing plant family representatives and their potential anticancer activity, which in some instances is comparable to that induced by commonly used therapeutics currently available on the market. The cytotoxic effect of the plant's crude latex, its fractions or isolated compounds, is analyzed, along with a study of cell apoptosis, chromatin condensation, DNA damage, changes in gene regulation and morphology changes, which can be observed in cell post plant extract addition. The in vivo studies go beyond the molecular level by showing significant reduction of the tumor growth and volume in animal models. Additionally, we present data regarding plant-mediated biosynthesis of nanoparticles, which is regarded as a new branch in plant latex research. It is solely based on the green-synthesis approach, which presents an interesting alternative to chemical-based nanoparticle synthesis. We have analyzed the cytotoxic effect of these particles on cells. Data regarding the cytotoxicity of such particles raises their potential to be involved in the design of novel cancer therapies, which further underlines the significance of latex-bearing plants in biotechnology. Throughout the course of this review, we concluded that plant latex is a rich source of many compounds, which can be further investigated and applied in the design of anticancer pharmaceuticals. The molecules, to which this cytotoxic effect can be attributed, include alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, terpenoids, proteases, nucleases and many novel compounds, which still remain to be characterized. They have been studied extensively in both in vitro and in vivo studies, which provide an excellent starting point for their rapid transfer to clinical studies in the near future. The comprehensive study of molecules from latex-bearing plants can result in finding a promising alternative to several pharmaceuticals on the market and help unravel the molecular mode of action of latex-based preparations.

Novel Therapeutic Approach in PEGylated Chitosan Nanoparticles of Apigenin for the Treatment of Cancer via Oral Nanomedicine

The goal of this study was to optimize and formulate apigenin (APG)-loaded pegylated chitosan nanoparticles (PEGylated-CNPs) via ionic gelation techniques using the Box-Behnken design (BBD). Three individual variables, X₁(chitosan: TPP concentration), X₂ (PEG-400 concentration), and X₃ (sonication time), were investigated for their influence on response variables (Y₁-particle size (PS); Y₂-drug entrapment efficiency (DEE); and Y₃-zeta potential (ZP). The optimized formula of APG-PEGylated CNPs was picked from the statistical design and was then examined for physical, morphological, release characterization, anti-oxidant, and anti-tumor potential. The average PS, PDI, %DEE, and ZP were found to be 139.63 ± 5.67 nm, 0.296 ± 0.014, 79.55 ± 3.12%, and 24.68 ± 1.84 mV, respectively. The optimized APG formulation was chosen and reformulated based on the desirability function. Results of the observed and predicted values of responses through the BBD process were found to be nearly identical. The resulting APG-PEGylated CNPs were spherical and smooth, according to surface morphology studies. The release study revealed that PEGylated-CNPs exhibited biphasic release patterns distinguished by an initial burst release of APG only at early phases accompanied by a delayed release near 24 h. Furthermore, APG-PEGylated CNPs demonstrated statistically increased antioxidant activities and cytotoxicity against MCF-7 cells compared to pure APG. Based on the findings, it is possible to conclude that BBD was efficient in optimizing the PEGylated CNPs formulation and recognizing the impacts of formulation variables. In conclusion, the developed formulation has a significant potential for anticancer therapy.

Pharmacokinetic of berberine, the main constituent of Berberis vulgaris L.: A comprehensive review

Barberry (Berberis vulgaris L.) is a medicinal plant and its main constituent is an isoquinoline alkaloid named berberine that has multiple pharmacological effects such as antioxidant, anti-microbial, antiinflammatory, anticancer, anti-diabetes, anti-dyslipidemia, and anti-obesity. However, it has restricted clinical uses due to its very poor solubility and bioavailability (less than 1%). It undergoes demethylenation, reduction, and cleavage of the dioxymethylene group in the first phase of metabolism. Its phase two reactions include glucuronidation, sulfation, and methylation. The liver is the main site for berberine distribution. Berberine could excrete in feces, urine, and bile. Fecal excretion of berberine (11-23%) is higher than urinary and biliary excretion routes. However, a major berberine metabolite is excreted in urine greater than in feces. Concomitant administration of berberine with other drugs such as metformin, cyclosporine A, digoxin, etc. may result in important interactions. Thus, in this review, we gathered and dissected any related animal and human research articles regarding the pharmacokinetic parameters of berberine including bioavailability, metabolism, distribution, excretion, and drug-drug interactions. Also, we discussed and gathered various animal and human studies regarding the developed products of berberine with better bioavailability and consequently, better therapeutic effects.

In Vitro and In Vivo Sucrosomial® Berberine Activity on Insulin Resistance

Background: Berberine is a natural alkaloid with hypoglycemic properties. However, its therapeutic use is limited by a very low oral bioavailability. Here we developed a new oral formulation of berberine based on Sucrosomial^® technology and tested its effect on insulin resistance. Methods: Sucrosomial^® berberine was first tested in vitro in the hepatoma cell line Huh7 to assess its effect on proteins involved in glucose homeostasis and insulin resistance. The pharmacokinetics and efficacy on insulin resistance were then studied in C57BL/6 mice fed with standard (SD) and high-fat diet (HFD) for 16 weeks and treated daily during the last 8 weeks with oral gavage of Sucrosomial^® berberine or berberine. Results: Sucrosomial^® berberine did not affect Huh7 cell viability at concentrations up to 40 µM. Incubation of Huh7 with 20 µM of Sucrosomial^® and control berberine induced glucokinase (GK) and the phosphorylation of 5′-adenosine monophosphate (AMP)-activated protein kinase (AMPK), both known targets for the control of insulin resistance. In vivo, we observed an 8-fold higher plasma concentration after 3 weeks of oral administration of 50 mg/kg/day of Sucrosomial^® formulation compared to berberine. HFD, compared to SD, induced insulin resistance in mice as determined by oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT). The treatment with a 6.25 mg/kg/daily dose of Sucrosomial^® berberine significantly reduced the area under the curve (AUC) of OGTT (73,103 ± 8645 vs. 58,830 ± 5597 mg/dL × min), while control berberine produced the same effects at 50 mg/Kg/day (51518 ± 1984 mg/dL × min). Under these conditions, the two formulations resulted in similar berberine plasma concentration in mice. Nevertheless, a different tissue distribution of metabolites was observed with a significant accumulation of reduced, demethylated and glucuronide berberine in the brain after the oral administration of the Sucrosomial^® form. Glucuronide berberine plasma concentration was higher with Sucrosomial^® berberine compared to normal berberine. Finally, we observed similar increases of AMPK phosphorylation in the liver in response to the treatment with Sucrosomial^® berberine and berberine. Conclusions: The Sucrosomial^® formulation is an innovative and effective technology to improve berberine gastrointestinal (GI) absorption with proven in vitro and in vivo activity on insulin resistance.

Natural Polysaccharide-Based Nanodrug Delivery Systems for Treatment of Diabetes

In recent years, natural polysaccharides have been considered as the ideal candidates for novel drug delivery systems because of their good biocompatibility, biodegradation, low immunogenicity, renewable source and easy modification. These natural polymers are widely used in the designing of nanocarriers, which possess wide applications in therapeutics, diagnostics, delivery and protection of bioactive compounds or drugs. A great deal of studies could be focused on developing polysaccharide nanoparticles and promoting their application in various fields, especially in biomedicine. In this review, a variety of polysaccharide-based nanocarriers were introduced, including nanoliposomes, nanoparticles, nanomicelles, nanoemulsions and nanohydrogels, focusing on the latest research progress of these nanocarriers in the treatment of diabetes and the possible strategies for further study of polysaccharide nanocarriers.

Synthesis, characterization and evaluation of in vitro antimicrobial and anti-diabetic activity of berberine encapsulated in guar-acacia gum nanocomplexes

In the present study, the anti-diabetic and antimicrobial properties of berberine were improved using non-ionic guar gum and ionic acacia gum as nanocarriers. Berberine loaded guar-acacia gum nanocomplexes were synthesized by employing ionic complexation method. The formulation was characterized by dynamic light scattering (DLS), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and evaluated for in vitro dissolution study, anti-diabetic activity and antimicrobial activity. The optimized berberine loaded guar-acacia gum nanocomplexes had a particle size of 290.2 nm as indicated by DLS and drug entrapment efficiency of 96.5%. Morphological analysis revealed that berberine nanocomplexes were spherical-shaped with a smooth surface and size in the range of 100–250 nm. Moreover, berberine loaded guar-acacia nanocomplexes showed good stability and controlled released property in vitro. Antimicrobial activity against bacterial strains and fungal strains demonstrated the higher antimicrobial potential of berberine loaded gum nanocomplexes than gum nanocomplexes (blank) and pure berberine as indicated by the greater zone of inhibition diameter. In vitro anti-diabetic assessment showed higher percentage inhibition of the α-amylase enzyme by berberine loaded gum nanocomplexes as compared to pure berberine and blank nanocomplexes. In conclusion, the improved biological potency of berberine upon encapsulation into gum nanocomplexes indicates that berberine loaded guar-acacia gum nanocomplexes can be used as a promising candidate against diabetes and pathogenic microorganisms in the near future.

Bacterial cellulose as a potential biopolymer in biomedical applications: a state-of-the-art review

Throughout history, natural biomaterials have benefited society. Nevertheless, in recent years, tailoring natural materials for diverse biomedical applications accompanied with sustainability has become the focus. With the progress in the field of materials science, novel approaches for the production, processing, and functionalization of biomaterials to obtain specific architectures have become achievable. This review highlights an immensely adaptable natural biomaterial, bacterial cellulose (BC). BC is an emerging sustainable biopolymer with immense potential in the biomedical field due to its unique physical properties such as flexibility, high porosity, good water holding capacity, and small size; chemical properties such as high crystallinity, foldability, high purity, high polymerization degree, and easy modification; and biological characteristics such as biodegradability, biocompatibility, excellent biological affinity, and non-biotoxicity. The structure of BC consists of glucose monomer units polymerized via cellulose synthase in β-1-4 glucan chains, creating BC nano fibrillar bundles with a uniaxial orientation. BC-based composites have been extensively investigated for diverse biomedical applications due to their similarity to the extracellular matrix structure. The recent progress in nanotechnology allows the further modification of BC, producing novel BC-based biomaterials for various applications. In this review, we strengthen the existing knowledge on the production of BC and BC composites and their unique properties, and highlight the most recent advances, focusing mainly on the delivery of active pharmaceutical compounds, tissue engineering, and wound healing. Further, we endeavor to present the challenges and prospects for BC-associated composites for their application in the biomedical field.

Synthesis and characterization of berberine-loaded chitosan nanoparticles for the protection of urethane-induced lung cancer

Lung cancer is one of the most common types of malignant tumors of the respiratory system and has the highest rates of incidence and mortality of malignant tumors. This study aimed to synthesize and characterize berberine-loaded chitosan nanoparticles (BBR-COSNPs) and to evaluate their protective effects against urethane-induced lung cancer. Forty male albino mice were divided into four groups, with the first serving as a negative control and the other three groups were injected intraperitoneally with urethane (1 mg/kg b.w) each other day for 1 week then group 2 was served as a positive control, however, groups 3 and 4 were treated orally with a daily dose of BBR or BBR-COSNPs (75 mg/kg b.w) for 10 consecutive weeks. Blood and lung tissue samples are collected for laboratory assay. The BBR-COSNPs were spherical, with an average particle size of 45.56 nm and zeta potential of 39.82 1.82 mV. The in vivo data demonstrated that mice given urethane alone had a significant increase in MDA, NO, NF-κB level, HIF1-α, and COX-2-positive expression in the lung tissue and serum VEGFR2, ALT, AST, urea, and creatinine accompanied with a significant decrease in GSH, SOD, caspase 9 in the lung tissue and serum BAX. Co-treatment with BBR-COSNPs suppressed lung cancer growth and promoted apoptosis by modulating serum BAX and lung caspase 9 gene expressions. In addition, BBR-COSNPs inhibited tumor angiogenesis by reduction in levels of serum VEGFR2 and lung HIF 1 gene expression. It is possible to conclude that BBR-COSNPs can be used in oral administration formulations for lunganticancer therapy.

Cubosomes as an emerging platform for drug delivery: a state-of-the-art review

Lipid-based drug delivery nanoparticles, including non-lamellar type, mesophasic nanostructured materials of lyotropic liquid crystals (LLCs), have been a topic of interest for researchers for their applications in encapsulation of drugs...