1
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Pei Z, Magann NL, Sowden MJ, Murphy RB, Gardiner MG, Sherburn MS, Coote ML. Computational and Experimental Confirmation of the Diradical Character of para-Quinonedimethide. J Am Chem Soc 2023; 145:16037-16044. [PMID: 37462344 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.3c04363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/27/2023]
Abstract
The ground-state structure of the parent para-quinonedimethide (p-QDM) molecule is generally represented in its closed shell form, i.e., as a cyclic, nonaromatic, through-conjugated/cross-conjugated hybrid comprising four C═C bonds. Nonetheless, p-QDM has been theorized to contain a contribution from its open-shell aromatic singlet diradical form. VBSCF calculations identify an open-shell contribution of 29% to the structure, while CASPT2(16,16)/def2-TZVP and ωB97XD/aug-cc-pVTZ calculations predict that dimerization proceeds along an open-shell singlet diradical pathway with a low (77 kJ/mol) barrier toward dimerization, which occurs by way of C-C bond formation between the exocyclic methylene carbons. A similar low (98 kJ/mol) barrier exists toward the reaction between a p-QDM molecule and the radical trap TEMPO. These predictions are verified experimentally through the isolation of bis-TEMPO-trapped p-QDM, its C-C coupled dimer, and by demonstrating that a mixture of p-QDM and TEMPO can initiate the radical polymerization of n-butyl acrylate at ambient temperature. In contrast to p-QDM, tetracyanoquinone (TCNQ) neither dimerizes nor reacts with TEMPO, despite having a similar diradical character to p-QDM. This lack of reactivity is consistent with both a higher kinetic barrier and a thermodynamically unfavorable process, which is ascribed to destabilizing steric clashes and polar effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhipeng Pei
- Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology, Flinders University, Bedford Park 5042 South Australia, Australia
| | - Nicholas L Magann
- Research School of Chemistry, Australian National University, Canberra 2601, Australia
| | - Madison J Sowden
- Research School of Chemistry, Australian National University, Canberra 2601, Australia
| | - Rhys B Murphy
- Research School of Chemistry, Australian National University, Canberra 2601, Australia
| | - Michael G Gardiner
- Research School of Chemistry, Australian National University, Canberra 2601, Australia
| | - Michael S Sherburn
- Research School of Chemistry, Australian National University, Canberra 2601, Australia
| | - Michelle L Coote
- Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology, Flinders University, Bedford Park 5042 South Australia, Australia
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2
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Bernacka-Wojcik I, Talide L, Abdel Aziz I, Simura J, Oikonomou VK, Rossi S, Mohammadi M, Dar AM, Seitanidou M, Berggren M, Simon DT, Tybrandt K, Jonsson MP, Ljung K, Niittylä T, Stavrinidou E. Flexible Organic Electronic Ion Pump for Flow-Free Phytohormone Delivery into Vasculature of Intact Plants. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2023; 10:e2206409. [PMID: 36935365 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202206409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2022] [Revised: 02/03/2023] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Plant vasculature transports molecules that play a crucial role in plant signaling including systemic responses and acclimation to diverse environmental conditions. Targeted controlled delivery of molecules to the vascular tissue can be a biomimetic way to induce long distance responses, providing a new tool for the fundamental studies and engineering of stress-tolerant plants. Here, a flexible organic electronic ion pump, an electrophoretic delivery device, for controlled delivery of phytohormones directly in plant vascular tissue is developed. The c-OEIP is based on polyimide-coated glass capillaries that significantly enhance the mechanical robustness of these microscale devices while being minimally disruptive for the plant. The polyelectrolyte channel is based on low-cost and commercially available precursors that can be photocured with blue light, establishing much cheaper and safer system than the state-of-the-art. To trigger OEIP-induced plant response, the phytohormone abscisic acid (ABA) in the petiole of intact Arabidopsis plants is delivered. ABA is one of the main phytohormones involved in plant stress responses and induces stomata closure under drought conditions to reduce water loss and prevent wilting. The OEIP-mediated ABA delivery triggered fast and long-lasting stomata closure far away from the delivery point demonstrating systemic vascular transport of the delivered ABA, verified delivering deuterium-labeled ABA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iwona Bernacka-Wojcik
- Laboratory of Organic Electronics, Department of Science and Technology, Linköping University, Norrköping, SE-601 74, Sweden
| | - Loïc Talide
- Umeå Plant Science Centre, Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå, 90183, Sweden
| | - Ilaria Abdel Aziz
- Laboratory of Organic Electronics, Department of Science and Technology, Linköping University, Norrköping, SE-601 74, Sweden
| | - Jan Simura
- Umeå Plant Science Centre, Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå, 90183, Sweden
| | - Vasileios K Oikonomou
- Laboratory of Organic Electronics, Department of Science and Technology, Linköping University, Norrköping, SE-601 74, Sweden
- Wallenberg Wood Science Center, Department of Science and Technology, Linköping University, Norrköping, SE-60174, Sweden
| | - Stefano Rossi
- Laboratory of Organic Electronics, Department of Science and Technology, Linköping University, Norrköping, SE-601 74, Sweden
| | - Mohsen Mohammadi
- Laboratory of Organic Electronics, Department of Science and Technology, Linköping University, Norrköping, SE-601 74, Sweden
- Wallenberg Wood Science Center, Department of Science and Technology, Linköping University, Norrköping, SE-60174, Sweden
| | - Abdul Manan Dar
- Laboratory of Organic Electronics, Department of Science and Technology, Linköping University, Norrköping, SE-601 74, Sweden
| | - Maria Seitanidou
- Laboratory of Organic Electronics, Department of Science and Technology, Linköping University, Norrköping, SE-601 74, Sweden
| | - Magnus Berggren
- Laboratory of Organic Electronics, Department of Science and Technology, Linköping University, Norrköping, SE-601 74, Sweden
- Wallenberg Wood Science Center, Department of Science and Technology, Linköping University, Norrköping, SE-60174, Sweden
| | - Daniel T Simon
- Laboratory of Organic Electronics, Department of Science and Technology, Linköping University, Norrköping, SE-601 74, Sweden
| | - Klas Tybrandt
- Laboratory of Organic Electronics, Department of Science and Technology, Linköping University, Norrköping, SE-601 74, Sweden
- Wallenberg Wood Science Center, Department of Science and Technology, Linköping University, Norrköping, SE-60174, Sweden
| | - Magnus P Jonsson
- Laboratory of Organic Electronics, Department of Science and Technology, Linköping University, Norrköping, SE-601 74, Sweden
- Wallenberg Wood Science Center, Department of Science and Technology, Linköping University, Norrköping, SE-60174, Sweden
| | - Karin Ljung
- Umeå Plant Science Centre, Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå, 90183, Sweden
| | - Totte Niittylä
- Umeå Plant Science Centre, Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå, 90183, Sweden
| | - Eleni Stavrinidou
- Laboratory of Organic Electronics, Department of Science and Technology, Linköping University, Norrköping, SE-601 74, Sweden
- Umeå Plant Science Centre, Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå, 90183, Sweden
- Wallenberg Wood Science Center, Department of Science and Technology, Linköping University, Norrköping, SE-60174, Sweden
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3
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Han WC, Kim YB, Lee YJ, Kim DS. Exploring multiphase liquid crystal polymeric droplets created by a partial phase-separation. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfa.2022.130124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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4
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Schwartz JJ. Additive manufacturing: Frameworks for chemical understanding and advancement in vat photopolymerization. MRS BULLETIN 2022; 47:628-641. [PMID: 35845754 PMCID: PMC9274636 DOI: 10.1557/s43577-022-00343-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/02/2022] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Three-dimensional printing, or additive manufacturing (AM), is a broad term for a wide range of fabrication methods utilizing materials such as small-molecule, polymer, and metal feedstocks. Each method requires different chemical, physical, and engineering needs to be successful. This article will discuss some of the considerations for polymer-based AM methods. Ultimately, we focus on the chemistries of vat photopolymerization, in which light is used to cure a resin from liquid to solid, to provide an example of how chemical advancements have led to increased speed, resolution, and multimaterial printing capabilities not previously possible.
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5
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Wang HS, Truong NP, Pei Z, Coote ML, Anastasaki A. Reversing RAFT Polymerization: Near-Quantitative Monomer Generation Via a Catalyst-Free Depolymerization Approach. J Am Chem Soc 2022; 144:4678-4684. [PMID: 35213149 PMCID: PMC8931752 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.2c00963] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
![]()
The ability to reverse
controlled radical polymerization and regenerate
the monomer would be highly beneficial for both fundamental research
and applications, yet this has remained very challenging to achieve.
Herein, we report a near-quantitative (up to 92%) and catalyst-free
depolymerization of various linear, bulky, cross-linked, and functional
polymethacrylates made by reversible addition–fragmentation
chain-transfer (RAFT) polymerization. Key to our approach is to exploit
the high end-group fidelity of RAFT polymers to generate chain-end
radicals at 120 °C. These radicals trigger a rapid unzipping
of both conventional (e.g., poly(methyl methacrylate)) and bulky (e.g.,
poly(oligo(ethylene glycol) methyl ether methacrylate)) polymers.
Importantly, the depolymerization product can be utilized to either
reconstruct the linear polymer or create an entirely new insoluble
gel that can also be subjected to depolymerization. This work expands
the potential of polymers made by controlled radical polymerization,
pushes the boundaries of depolymerization, offers intriguing mechanistic
aspects, and enables new applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyun Suk Wang
- Laboratory of Polymeric Materials, Department of Materials, ETH Zurich, Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 5, Zurich 8093, Switzerland
| | - Nghia P Truong
- Laboratory of Polymeric Materials, Department of Materials, ETH Zurich, Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 5, Zurich 8093, Switzerland
| | - Zhipeng Pei
- Research School of Chemistry, Australian National University, Canberra 2601, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
| | - Michelle L Coote
- Research School of Chemistry, Australian National University, Canberra 2601, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
| | - Athina Anastasaki
- Laboratory of Polymeric Materials, Department of Materials, ETH Zurich, Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 5, Zurich 8093, Switzerland
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6
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Liu S, Chua L, Shamsabadi AA, Corcoran P, Patra A, Grady MC, Soroush M, Rappe AM. Oxygen-Initiated Free-Radical Polymerization of Alkyl Acrylates at High Temperatures. Macromolecules 2021. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.1c00669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Shi Liu
- School of Science, Westlake University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310024, China
- Institute of Natural Sciences, Westlake Institute for Advanced Study, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310024, China
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6323, United States
| | - Lauren Chua
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6323, United States
| | - Ahmad Arabi Shamsabadi
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-2816, United States
| | - Patrick Corcoran
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-2816, United States
| | - Abhirup Patra
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6323, United States
| | - Michael C. Grady
- Axalta Coating Systems, Global Innovation Center, 1050 Constitution Avenue, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19112, United States
| | - Masoud Soroush
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-2816, United States
| | - Andrew M. Rappe
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6323, United States
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7
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Self-Initiated Butyl Acrylate Polymerizations in Bulk and in Solution Monitored By In-Line Techniques. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:polym13122021. [PMID: 34205620 PMCID: PMC8233791 DOI: 10.3390/polym13122021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2021] [Revised: 06/17/2021] [Accepted: 06/18/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
High-temperature acrylate polymerizations are technically relevant, but yet not fully understood. In particular the mechanism and the kinetics of the thermal self-initiation is a topic of current research. To obtain more detailed information the conversion dependence of the polymerization rate, rbr, is determined via in-line DSC and FT-NIR spectroscopy for reactions in bulk and in solution at temperatures ranging from 80 to 160 °C. Solution polymerizations revealed that dioxane is associated with the highest rbr, while aromatic solvents result in the lowest values of rbr. Interestingly, rbr for polymerizations in solution with dioxane depends on the actual monomer concentration at a given time in the system, but is not depending on the initial monomer concentration. The overall rate of polymerization in bulk and in solution is well represented by an equation with three or four parameters, respectively, being estimated by multiple linear regression and the temperature as additional parameter.
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8
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Edeleva M, Marien YW, Van Steenberge PHM, D'hooge DR. Impact of side reactions on molar mass distribution, unsaturation level and branching density in solution free radical polymerization of n-butyl acrylate under well-defined lab-scale reactor conditions. Polym Chem 2021. [DOI: 10.1039/d1py00151e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
The paper describes the influence of side reactions in isothermal solution free-radical polymerization of n-butyl acrylate accounting for chain-length dependent diffusional limitations on termination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariya Edeleva
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT)
- Ghent University
- 9052 Ghent
- Belgium
| | - Yoshi W. Marien
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT)
- Ghent University
- 9052 Ghent
- Belgium
| | | | - Dagmar R. D'hooge
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT)
- Ghent University
- 9052 Ghent
- Belgium
- Centre for Textile Science and Engineering (CTSE)
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9
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Arioli M, Manfredi A, Alongi J, Ferruti P, Ranucci E. Highlight on the Mechanism of Linear Polyamidoamine Degradation in Water. Polymers (Basel) 2020; 12:E1376. [PMID: 32575401 PMCID: PMC7361999 DOI: 10.3390/polym12061376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2020] [Revised: 06/12/2020] [Accepted: 06/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
This paper aims at elucidating the degradation mechanism of linear polyamidoamines (PAAs) in water. PAAs are synthesized by the aza-Michael polyaddition of prim-monoamines or bis-sec-amines with bisacrylamides. Many PAAs are water-soluble and have potential for biotechnological applications and as flame-retardants. PAAs have long been known to degrade in water at pH ≥ 7, but their degradation mechanism has never been explored in detail. Filling this gap was necessary to assess the suitability of PAAs for the above applications. To this aim, a small library of nine PAAs was expressly synthesized and their degradation mechanism in aqueous solution studied by 1H-NMR in different conditions of pH and temperature. The main degradation mechanism was in all cases the retro-aza-Michael reaction triggered by dilution but, in some cases, hints were detected of concurrent hydrolytic degradation. Most PAAs were stable at pH 4.0; all degraded at pH 7.0 and 9.0. Initially, the degradation rate was faster at pH 9.0 than at pH 7.0, but the percent degradation after 97 days was mostly lower. In most cases, at pH 7.0 the degradation followed first order kinetics. The degradation rates mainly depended on the basicity of the amine monomers. More basic amines acted as better leaving groups.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Paolo Ferruti
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Università degli Studi di Milano, via C. Golgi 19, 20133 Milano, Italy; (M.A.); (A.M.); (J.A.)
| | - Elisabetta Ranucci
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Università degli Studi di Milano, via C. Golgi 19, 20133 Milano, Italy; (M.A.); (A.M.); (J.A.)
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10
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Laki S, A. Shamsabadi A, Riazi H, Grady MC, Rappe AM, Soroush M. Experimental and Mechanistic Modeling Study of Self-Initiated High-Temperature Polymerization of Ethyl Acrylate. Ind Eng Chem Res 2019. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.iecr.9b05050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Saeed Laki
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Ahmad A. Shamsabadi
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Hossein Riazi
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Michael C. Grady
- Axalta Coating Systems, Global Innovation
Center, Navy Yard, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19112, United States
| | - Andrew M. Rappe
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Masoud Soroush
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
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11
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Method of Moments Applied to Most-Likely High-Temperature Free-Radical Polymerization Reactions. Processes (Basel) 2019. [DOI: 10.3390/pr7100656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Many widely-used polymers are made via free-radical polymerization. Mathematical models of polymerization reactors have many applications such as reactor design, operation, and intensification. The method of moments has been utilized extensively for many decades to derive rate equations needed to predict polymer bulk properties. In this article, for a comprehensive list consisting of more than 40 different reactions that are most likely to occur in high-temperature free-radical homopolymerization, moment rate equations are derived methodically. Three types of radicals—secondary radicals, tertiary radicals formed through backbiting reactions, and tertiary radicals produced by intermolecular chain transfer to polymer reactions—are accounted for. The former tertiary radicals generate short-chain branches, while the latter ones produce long-chain branches. In addition, two types of dead polymer chains, saturated and unsaturated, are considered. Using a step-by-step approach based on the method of moments, this article guides the reader to determine the contributions of each reaction to the production or consumption of each species as well as to the zeroth, first and second moments of chain-length distributions of live and dead polymer chains, in order to derive the overall rate equation for each species, and to derive the rate equations for the leading moments of different chain-length distributions. The closure problems that arise are addressed by assuming chain-length distribution models. As a case study, β-scission and backbiting rate coefficients of methyl acrylate are estimated using the model, and the model is then applied to batch spontaneous thermal polymerization to predict polymer average molecular weights and monomer conversion. These predictions are compared with experimental measurements.
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12
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Special Issue on Feature Papers for Celebrating the Fifth Anniversary of the Founding of Processes. Processes (Basel) 2019. [DOI: 10.3390/pr7010015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The Special Issue “Feature Papers for Celebrating the Fifth Anniversary of the Founding of Processes” represents a landmark for this open access journal covering chemical, biological, materials, pharmaceutical, and environmental systems as well as general computational methods for process and systems engineering. [...]
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13
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Riazi H, A. Shamsabadi A, Grady MC, Rappe AM, Soroush M. Experimental and Theoretical Study of the Self-Initiation Reaction of Methyl Acrylate in Free-Radical Polymerization. Ind Eng Chem Res 2018. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.iecr.7b04648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hossein Riazi
- Department
of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Ahmad A. Shamsabadi
- Department
of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Michael C. Grady
- Axalta Coating Systems, Wilmington, Delaware 19803, United States
| | - Andrew M. Rappe
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Masoud Soroush
- Department
of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
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14
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Vir AB, Marien YW, Van Steenberge PHM, Barner-Kowollik C, Reyniers MF, Marin GB, D'hooge DR. Access to the β-scission rate coefficient in acrylate radical polymerization by careful scanning of pulse laser frequencies at elevated temperature. REACT CHEM ENG 2018. [DOI: 10.1039/c8re00171e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
A novel method to estimate the β-scission rate coefficient in acrylate radical polymerization is presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anil B. Vir
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT)
- Ghent University
- B-9052 Ghent
- Belgium
| | - Y. W. Marien
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT)
- Ghent University
- B-9052 Ghent
- Belgium
| | | | - Christopher Barner-Kowollik
- School of Chemistry
- Physics and Mechanical Engineering
- Queensland University of Technology (QUT)
- Brisbane
- Australia
| | | | - Guy B. Marin
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT)
- Ghent University
- B-9052 Ghent
- Belgium
| | - Dagmar R. D'hooge
- Laboratory for Chemical Technology (LCT)
- Ghent University
- B-9052 Ghent
- Belgium
- Centre for Textile Science and Engineering
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