Phase-Specific Changes in Rate of Force Development and Muscle Morphology Throughout a Block Periodized Training Cycle in Weightlifters

Comparison of Force Measures Between Start Position, Transition Phase, and Midthigh Pull With Weightlifting Performance During Israel National Competition

ABSTRACT

Ben-Zeev, T, Sadres, E, and Hoffman, JR. Comparison of force measures between start position, transition phase, and midthigh pull with weightlifting performance during Israel National Competition. J Strength Cond Res 37(11): 2200-2205, 2023-This study compared the relationship between peak force (PKF) and rate of force development (RFD) at isometric start position pull (ISPP), isometric transition position pull (ITPP), and isometric midthigh pull (IMTP) with the snatch (SN), clean and jerk (C&J), and total score (TOT) in 30 national and international Israeli weightlifters (18 men and 12 women). All measures were collected either 1 week before or 1 week after the Israel weightlifting championship. A significant correlation was observed between peak force at all pull positions and performance in the SN, C&J, and TOT for men, women, and both sexes combined ( p < 0.001). The correlations were all very strong (e.g., r values all above 0.90) for both ISPP and ITPP, and all weightlifting performance variables, whereas the correlation between IMTP and weightlifting performance ranged from moderate ( r = 0.69) to strong ( r = 0.89). In addition, significant differences were observed between the correlation coefficient value in ISPP and ITPP with the TOT score compared with the correlations observed in IMTP ( z = 0.7, p = 0.046, and z = 1.7, p = 0.049, respectively). Significant differences were also observed in the women group for ISPP for the SN and TOT score compared with the correlation in IMTP ( z = 1.72, p = 0.043, and z = 1.75, p = 0.040, respectively). Rate of force development at 250 milliseconds significantly ( p values <0.05) correlated with the SN, C&J, and TOT in women ( r 's = 0.65, 0.68, and 0.67, respectively), and when both sexes were combined ( r 's = 0.59, 0.61, and 0.60, respectively), but not for the men. Results of this investigation indicated the importance of isometric force capabilities at ISPP and ITPP for weightlifting performance.

The Tapering Practices of Competitive Weightlifters

ABSTRACT

Winwood, PW, Keogh, JW, Travis, SK, and Pritchard, HJ. The tapering practices of competitive weightlifters. J Strength Cond Res 37(4): 829-839, 2023-This study explored the tapering strategies of weightlifting athletes. Weightlifting athletes ( n = 146) (mean ± SD ; age: 29.2 ± 8.7 years, height: 172.5 ± 10.1 cm, body mass: 84.0 ± 17.2 kg, 4.7 ± 3.4 years of weightlifting training experience, and 3.9 ± 3.3 years of competitive weightlifting experience) completed a self-reported 4-page, 39-item internet survey on tapering practices. Subgroup analysis by sex (male and female) and competitive standard (local or regional, national and international level) was conducted. Ninety-nine percent ( n = 144) of weightlifting athletes reported they used a taper. Athletes stated that their typical taper length was 8.0 ± 4.4 days, with the linear (36%) and step tapers (33%) being the most performed. Training volume decreased during the taper by 43.1 ± 14.6%, and athletes ceased all training 1.5 ± 0.6 days out from competition. Muscular strength, light technique work, and aerobic conditioning were the most common types of training performed in the taper. Athletes typically stated that tapering was performed to achieve rest and recovery, physical preparation for peak performance and mental preparation; training intensity and training duration decreased whereas training frequency remained the same or decreased; traditional exercises were performed further out from competition than weightlifting exercises; assistance exercises and some strength work were reduced; nutritional changes, foam rolling, static stretching, and massage were strategies used in the taper; and poor tapering occurred because of training too heavy, too hard, or too light and life-work circumstances. These results may aid athletes and coaches in strength sports to optimize tapering variables leading to improved performances.

"Are You Doing Any Sport Science?" A Brief Editorial

This brief opinion-based editorial addresses what the authors perceive to be a fundamental issue in the application of sport science, and these issues are reflected by the question "Are you doing any sport science?" As sport science has grown within the United States, organizational sport science budgets have grown, with increasing interest in developing various sport science initiatives. While it is indeed an exciting time for sport science, the authors suggest that, too often, sport science pursuits are driven by commercially available technologies and viewed as an "add-on" instead of pursuing an integrated systematic approach to informing the training process.

“I Want to Create So Much Stimulus That Adaptation Goes Through the Roof”: High-Performance Strength Coaches' Perceptions of Planned Overreaching

Functional overreaching (FOR) occurs when athletes experience improved athletic capabilities in the days and weeks following short-term periods of increased training demand. However, prolonged high training demand with insufficient recovery may also lead to non-functional overreaching (NFOR) or the overtraining syndrome (OTS). The aim of this research was to explore strength coaches' perceptions and experiences of planned overreaching (POR); short-term periods of increased training demand designed to improve athletic performance. Fourteen high-performance strength coaches (weightlifting; n = 5, powerlifting; n = 4, sprinting; n = 2, throws; n = 2, jumps; n = 1) participated in semistructured interviews. Reflexive thematic analysis identified 3 themes: creating enough challenge, training prescription, and questioning the risk to reward. POR was implemented for a 7 to 14 day training cycle and facilitated through increased daily/weekly training volume and/or training intensity. Participants implemented POR in the weeks (~5–8 weeks) preceding competition to allow sufficient time for performance restoration and improvement to occur. Short-term decreased performance capacity, both during and in the days to weeks following training, was an anticipated by-product of POR, and at times used as a benchmark to confirm that training demand was sufficiently challenging. Some participants chose not to implement POR due to a lack of knowledge, confidence, and/or perceived increased risk of athlete training maladaptation. Additionally, this research highlights the potential dichotomy between POR protocols used by strength coaches to enhance athletic performance and those used for the purpose of inducing training maladaptation for diagnostic identification.

Weightlifting for Children and Adolescents: A Narrative Review

The involvement of youth in the sport of weightlifting and the use of weightlifting methods as part of training for youth sport performance appears to be increasing. Weightlifting for children and adolescents has been criticized in some circles and is a controversial aspect of resistance training for young people. Although injuries can occur during weightlifting and related activities, the incidence and rate of injury appear to be relatively low and severe injury is uncommon. A number of performance, physical, and physiological variables, such as body composition, strength, and power, are improved by weightlifting training in children, adolescents, and young athletes. Manipulating program variables, when appropriate, can have a substantial and profound influence on the psychological, physiological, physical, and performance aspects of weightlifters. An understanding of the sport, scientific training principles, and musculoskeletal growth development is necessary to properly construct a reasonable and appropriate training program. A scientific background aids in providing an evidenced basis and sound rationale in selecting appropriate methods and directing adaptations toward more specific goals and enables the coach to make choices about training and competition that might not otherwise be possible. If weightlifting training and competition are age group appropriate and are properly supervised, the sport can be substantially safe and efficacious.

Skeletal Muscle Adaptations and Performance Outcomes Following a Step and Exponential Taper in Strength Athletes

Before major athletic events, a taper is often prescribed to facilitate recovery and enhance performance. However, it is unknown which taper model is most effective for peaking maximal strength and positively augmenting skeletal muscle. Thus, the purpose of this study was to compare performance outcomes and skeletal muscle adaptations following a step vs. an exponential taper in strength athletes. Sixteen powerlifters (24.0 ± 4.0 years, 174.4 ± 8.2 cm, 89.8 ± 21.4 kg) participated in a 6-week training program aimed at peaking maximal strength on back squat [initial 1-repetition-maximum (1RM): 174.7 ± 33.4 kg], bench press (118.5 ± 29.9 kg), and deadlift (189.9 ± 41.2 kg). Powerlifters were matched based on relative maximal strength, and randomly assigned to either (a) 1-week overreach and 1-week step taper or (b) 1-week overreach and 3-week exponential taper. Athletes were tested pre- and post-training on measures of body composition, jumping performance, isometric squat, and 1RM. Whole muscle size was assessed at the proximal, middle, and distal vastus lateralis using ultrasonography and microbiopsies at the middle vastus lateralis site. Muscle samples (n = 15) were analyzed for fiber size, fiber type [myosin-heavy chain (MHC)-I, -IIA, -IIX, hybrid-I/IIA] using whole muscle immunohistochemistry and single fiber dot blots, gene expression, and microRNA abundance. There were significant main time effects for 1RM squat (p < 0.001), bench press (p < 0.001), and deadlift, (p = 0.024), powerlifting total (p < 0.001), Wilks Score (p < 0.001), squat jump peak-power scaled to body mass (p = 0.001), body mass (p = 0.005), fat mass (p = 0.002), and fat mass index (p = 0.002). There were significant main time effects for medial whole muscle cross-sectional area (mCSA) (p = 0.006) and averaged sites (p < 0.001). There was also a significant interaction for MHC-IIA fiber cross-sectional area (fCSA) (p = 0.014) with post hoc comparisons revealing increases following the step-taper only (p = 0.002). There were significant main time effects for single-fiber MHC-I% (p = 0.015) and MHC-IIA% (p = 0.033), as well as for MyoD (p = 0.002), MyoG (p = 0.037), and miR-499a (p = 0.033). Overall, increases in whole mCSA, fCSA, MHC-IIA fCSA, and MHC transitions appeared to favor the step taper group. An overreach followed by a step taper appears to produce a myocellular environment that enhances skeletal muscle adaptations, whereas an exponential taper may favor neuromuscular performance.

Periodization and Block Periodization in Sports: Emphasis on Strength-Power Training-A Provocative and Challenging Narrative

ABSTRACT

Stone, MH, Hornsby, WG, Haff, GG, Fry, AC, Suarez, DG, Liu, J, Gonzalez-Rave, JM, and Pierce, KC. Periodization and block periodization in sports: emphasis on strength-power training-a provocative and challenging narrative. J Strength Cond Res 35(8): 2351-2371, 2021-Periodization can be defined as a logical sequential, phasic method of manipulating fitness and recovery phases to increase the potential for achieving specific performance goals while minimizing the potential for nonfunctional over-reaching, overtraining, and injury. Periodization deals with the micromanagement of timelines and fitness phases and is cyclic in nature. On the other hand, programming deals with the micromanagement of the training process and deals with exercise selection, volume, intensity, etc. Evidence indicates that a periodized training process coupled with appropriate programming can produce superior athletic enhancement compared with nonperiodized process. There are 2 models of periodization, traditional and block. Traditional can take different forms (i.e., reverse). Block periodization has 2 subtypes, single goal or factor (individual sports) and multiple goals or factors (team sports). Both models have strengths and weaknesses but can be "tailored" through creative programming to produce excellent results for specific sports.

Training for Muscular Strength: Methods for Monitoring and Adjusting Training Intensity

Linear loading, the two-for-two rule, percent of one repetition maximum (1RM), RM zones, rate of perceived exertion (RPE), repetitions in reserve, set-repetition best, autoregulatory progressive resistance exercise (APRE), and velocity-based training (VBT) are all methods of adjusting resistance training intensity. Each method has advantages and disadvantages that strength and conditioning practitioners should be aware of when measuring and monitoring strength characteristics. The linear loading and 2-for-2 methods may be beneficial for novice athletes; however, they may be limited in their capacity to provide athletes with variation and detrimental if used exclusively for long periods of time. The percent of 1RM and RM zone methods may provide athletes with more variation and greater potential for strength-power adaptations; however, they fail to account for daily changes in athlete's performance capabilities. An athlete's daily readiness can be addressed to various extents by both subjective (e.g., RPE, repetitions in reserve, set-repetition best, and APRE) and objective (e.g., VBT) load adjustment methods. Future resistance training monitoring may aim to include a combination of measures that quantify outcome (e.g., velocity, load, time, etc.) with process (e.g., variability, coordination, efficiency, etc.) relevant to the stage of learning or the task being performed. Load adjustment and monitoring methods should be used to supplement and guide the practitioner, quantify what the practitioner 'sees', and provide longitudinal data to assist in reviewing athlete development and providing baselines for the rate of expected development in resistance training when an athlete returns to sport from injury or large training load reductions.

"Is It Overtraining or Just Work Ethic?": Coaches' Perceptions of Overtraining in High-Performance Strength Sports

Optimal physical performance is achieved through the careful manipulation of training and recovery. Short-term increases in training demand can induce functional overreaching (FOR) that can lead to improved physical capabilities, whereas nonfunctional overreaching (NFOR) or the overtraining syndrome (OTS) occur when high training-demand is applied for extensive periods with limited recovery. To date, little is known about the OTS in strength sports, particularly from the perspective of the strength sport coach. Fourteen high-performance strength sport coaches from a range of strength sports (weightlifting; n = 5, powerlifting; n = 4, sprinting; n = 2, throws; n = 2, jumps; n = 1) participated in semistructured interviews (mean duration 57; SD = 10 min) to discuss their experiences of the OTS. Reflexive thematic analysis resulted in the identification of four higher order themes: definitions, symptoms, recovery and experiences and observations. Additional subthemes were created to facilitate organisation and presentation of data, and to aid both cohesiveness of reporting and publicising of results. Participants provided varied and sometimes dichotomous perceptions of the OTS and proposed a multifactorial profile of diagnostic symptoms. Prevalence of OTS within strength sports was considered low, with the majority of participants not observing or experiencing long-term reductions in performance with their athletes.

Strength, Endocrine, and Body Composition Alterations across Four Blocks of Training in an Elite 400 m Sprinter

The ability to produce force rapidly has the potential to directly influence sprinting performance through changes in stride length and stride frequency. This ability is commonly referred to as the rate of force development (RFD). For this reason, many elite sprinters follow a combined program consisting of resistance training and sprint training. The purpose of this study was to investigate the strength, endocrine and body composition adaptations that occur during distinct phases of a block periodized training cycle in a 400 m Olympic level sprinter. The athlete is an elite level 400 m male sprinter (age 31 years, body mass: 74 kg, years of training: 15 and Personal Best (PB): 45.65 s). This athlete completed four distinct training phases of a block periodized training program (16 weeks) with five testing sessions consisting of testosterone:cortisol (T/C) profiles, body composition, vertical jump, and maximum strength testing. Large fluctuations in T/C were found following high volume training and the taper. Minor changes in body mass were observed with an abrupt decrease following the taper which coincided with a small increase in fat mass percentage. Jump height (5.7%), concentric impulse (9.4%), eccentric impulse (3.4%) and power ratio (18.7%) all increased substantially from T1 to T5. Relative strength increased 6.04% from T1 to T5. Lastly, our results demonstrate the effectiveness of a competitive taper in increasing physiological markers for performance as well as dynamic performance variables. Block periodization training was effective in raising the physical capabilities of an Olympic level 400 m runner which have been shown to directly transfer to sprinting performance.

Identifying Reliable and Relatable Force-Time Metrics in Athletes-Considerations for the Isometric Mid-Thigh Pull and Countermovement Jump

The purpose of this study was to evaluate intrasession reliability of countermovement jump (CMJ) and isometric mid-thigh pull (IMTP) force-time characteristics, as well as relationships between CMJ and IMTP metrics. Division I sport and club athletes (n = 112) completed two maximal effort CMJ and IMTP trials, in that order, on force plates. Relative and absolute reliability were assessed using intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) > 0.80 and coefficients of variation (CVs) < 10%. Intrasession reliability was acceptable for the majority of the CMJ force-time metrics except for concentric rate of force development (RFD), eccentric impulse and RFD, and lower limb stiffness. The IMTP's time to peak force, instantaneous force at 150 ms, instantaneous net force, and RFD measures were not reliable. Statistically significant weak to moderate relationships (r = 0.20-0.46) existed between allometrically scaled CMJ and IMTP metrics, with the exception of CMJ eccentric mean power not being related with IMTP performances. A majority of CMJ and IMTP metrics met acceptable reliability standards, except RFD measures which should be used with caution. Provided CMJs and IMTPs are indicative of distinct physical fitness capabilities, it is suggested to monitor athlete performance in both tests via changes in those variables that demonstrate the greatest degree of reliability.

Rate of Force Development, Muscle Architecture, and Performance in Elite Weightlifters

PURPOSE

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the relationship between weightlifting performance and the rate of force development (RFD), muscle architecture, and body composition in elite Olympic weightlifters.

METHODS

Six male Olympic weightlifters (age 23.3 [3.4] y, body mass 88.7 [10.2] kg, body height 1.76 [0.07] m, snatch 146.7 [15.4] kg, clean and jerk 179.4 [22.1] kg), all members of the national team, participated in the study. Athletes completed a 16-week periodized training program aiming to maximize their performance at the national competition event. Measurements, including maximal strength (1-repetition maximum) in snatch, clean and jerk, back and front squat, isometric leg press RFD and peak force, countermovement jump, vastus lateralis muscle architecture, and body composition, were performed before and after the training period.

RESULTS

Weightlifting performance increased significantly after training (P < .05). Leg press RFD increased only in time windows of 0 to 200 and 0 to 250 milliseconds after training (8.9% [8.5%] and 9.4% [7.7%], respectively, P < .05) while peak force remained unaltered (P < .05). Front squat strength increased significantly (P < .05), while countermovement jump power increased 2.3% (2.1%) (P < .05). No changes were observed for muscle architecture and lean body mass (P > .05). Significant correlations were observed between performance in snatch and clean and jerk with isometric leg press RFD, at all time windows, as well as with lean body mass and squat 1-repetition maximum.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that regular examination of RFD, lean body mass, and lower extremities' 1-repetition maximum may be useful performance predictors in elite Olympic weightlifters.

Addressing the Confusion within Periodization Research

In this editorial, we focus on recent problematic developments in sport science, and more specifically, problems related to periodization research. Primary areas discussed are (1) appreciation of history, (2) considerations for training studies, (3) the development of concepts, and (4) programming-driven training models.

Dynamic Strength Index: Relationships with Common Performance Variables and Contextualization of Training Recommendations

The purposes of this study were to examine the relationships between dynamic strength index (DSI) and other strength-power performance characteristics and to contextualize DSI scores using case study comparisons. 88 male and 67 female NCAA division I collegiate athletes performed countermovement jumps (CMJ) and isometric mid-thigh pulls (IMTP) during a pre-season testing session as part of a long-term athlete monitoring program. Spearman's correlations were used to assess the relationships between DSI and CMJ peak force, height, modified reactive strength index, peak power and IMTP peak force and rate of force development (RFD). Very large relationships existed between DSI and IMTP peak force (r = -0.848 and -0.746), while small-moderate relationships existed between DSI and CMJ peak force (r = 0.297 and 0.313), height (r = 0.108 and 0.167), modified reactive strength index (r = 0.174 and 0.274), and IMTP RFD (r = -0.341 and -0.338) for men and women, respectively. Finally, relationships between DSI and CMJ peak power were trivial-small for male (r = 0.008) and female athletes (r = 0.191). Case study analyses revealed that despite similar DSI scores, each athlete's percentile rankings for each variable and CMJ force-time characteristics were unique, which may suggest different training emphases are needed. Based on the explained variance, an athlete's IMTP performance may have a larger influence on their DSI score compared to the CMJ. DSI scores should be contextualized using additional performance data to ensure each individual athlete receives the appropriate training stimulus during different training phases throughout the year.