Field-Based Tests for the Assessment of Physical Fitness in Children and Adolescents Practicing Sport: A Systematic Review within the ESA Program

A multivariate multilevel approach to unravel the associations between individual and school factors on children's motor performance in the REACT project

OBJECTIVE

The aim was to (1) estimate the relationship between physical fitness (PF) and object control fundamental movement skills (FMS), (2) identify child characteristics that relate with PF and FMS, and (3) examine associations between the school environment, PF, and FMS.

METHODS

The sample included 1014 Portuguese children aged 6-10 years from the REACT project. PF was assessed via running speed, shuttle run, standing long jump, handgrip, and the PACER test. Object control FMS were assessed with stationary dribble, kick, catch, overhand throw, and underhand roll. Test performances were transformed into z-scores, and their sum was expressed as overall PF and FMS. Child-level variables included body mass index (BMI) z-scores, accelerometer-measured sedentary time and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, and socioeconomic status (SES). School size, physical education classes, practice areas, and equipment were also assessed.

RESULTS

Approximately, 90% of the variance in object control PF and FMS was at the child level, and 10% at the school level. The correlation between PF and object control FMS was .62, which declined to .43 with the inclusion of covariates. Older, more active, and higher SES children had higher object control PF and FMS, and boys outperformed girls. BMI was negatively associated with PF but not with object control FMS. Sedentary time and number of physical education classes were not significant predictors. Most school predictors did not jointly associate with PF and object control FMS.

CONCLUSION

PF and object control FMS z-scores were moderately related. Not all child characteristics were associated with both PF and object control FMS, and their effect sizes were different. School characteristics only explained 10% of the total variation in PF and object control FMS.

Does maturity estimation, 2D:4D and training load measures explain physical fitness changes of youth football players?

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of the present study was two-fold: (1) To analyse physical fitness changes of youth football players after a full-season; and (2) to examine whether physical fitness changes are explainable by estimated maturity status, 2digit:4digit ratio (2D:4D) from each hand and training load (TL) measures.

METHODS

Twenty-seven youth elite Under-15 football players were daily monitored for training load measures during 38 weeks. At the beginning and at the end of the season, all players were assessed for physical fitness. Also, the maturity status estimation and the length of the second and fourth digits of both hands were collected at the beginning of the season.

RESULTS

Significant differences were found for all physical fitness measures after the season. The second and fourth digits of left and right hands had negative moderate correlations with change of direction (COD) changes (r=-.39 to - 0.45 | p = .05 to 0.02). Also, the maturity offset measure had negative moderate correlations with COD changes (r=-.40 | p = .04). From the reported significant correlations, the maturity offset, Left 4D, Right 2D and Right 4D significantly predicted the Mod.505 COD test changes (β = 0.41, p = .04; β = -0.41, p = .04; β = -0.45, p = .02; and β = -0.44, p = .03, respectively).

CONCLUSION

The maturity offset and the 2D:4D measures have the potential to predict COD performance changes over-time in youth football players. Given the lack of associations between the maturity estimation, 2D:4D and training load measures, with the overall physical fitness measures, coaches should rely only at COD changes.

Assessment of the Speed and Power of Push-Ups Performed on Surfaces with Different Degrees of Instability

(I) Training in unstable conditions, with different elements, platforms, or situations, has been used because there is a significant increase in muscle activation, balance, proprioception, and even sports performance. However, it is not known how the devices used are classified according to performance variables, nor the differences according to instability experience. (II) This study aims to analyze the differences in power and speed in push-ups with different situations of instability in trained and untrained male subjects. Power and speed in push-up exercise were analyzed in 26 untrained and 25 trained participants in 6 different situations (one stable and five unstable) (1) stable (PS), (2) monopodal (PM), (3) rings (PR), (4) TRX^® (PT), (5) hands-on Bosu^® (PH) (6) feet on Bosu^® (PF). The variables were analyzed using a linear position transducer. (III) The best data were evidenced with PS, followed by PR, PM, PT, PH and PF. The trained subjects obtained better results in all the conditions analyzed in mean and maximum power and speed values (p < 0.001). The decrease in these variables was significantly greater in the untrained subjects than in the trained subjects in the PR situation (8% and 18% respectively). In PF there were differences between groups (p < 0.001), reaching between 32-46% in all variables. The difference between the two groups was notable, varying between 12-58%. (IV) The results showed a negative and progressive influence of instability on power and speed in push-ups. This suggests that instability should be adapted to the subject's experience and is not advisable in untrained subjects who wish to improve power.

Comparative analysis of core muscle activation according to the use of props and the different knee angle during the modified Pilates Hundred

BACKGROUND

There are not so many Pilates studies related to muscle activation. Since the effectiveness and efficiency of the Pilates Hundred to muscle activation has recently emerged, it is necessary to investigate the effects of the Pilates Hundred on core muscles.

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this study was to determine what difference occurs in the muscle activity, during the Pilates Hundred, to suggest the optimal props for muscle function improvement and then to provide data for the efficient exercise program.

METHODS

Twenty-eight men in their twenties who were able to fully conduct Pilates Hundred. According to the difference between the small tool application (no prop: NP, soft ball mini: SB, Pilates ring: PR) and the knee joint angle (90° and 180°), muscle activations of rectus abdominis (RA), external oblique (EO), rectus femoris (RF), lateral muscle (vastus lateralis: VL), medial muscle (vastus medialis: VM), biceps femoris (BF), and semitendinosus (ST) were measured by the using surface electromyography (EMG) while different exercise conditions.

RESULTS

During Pilates Hundred, the use of tools was found to be more effective in activating the core muscle (NP < SB < PR). During Pilates Hundred, 180° of knee angle had more influence on core muscle activation than 90°, and knee angle and props use showed an interaction for activating core muscles.

CONCLUSION

The Pilates Hundred with PR and 180° knee angle intervention can increase core muscle activation, and this leads to effective Pilates exercise program for those who need to enhance core muscle volume and function and to rehabilitate core muscles.

Validity and Reliability of Mobile Applications for Assessing Strength, Power, Velocity, and Change-of-Direction: A Systematic Review

This systematic review aimed to (1) identify and summarize studies that have examined the validity of apps for measuring human strength, power, velocity, and change-of-direction, and (2) identify and summarize studies that have examined the reliability of apps for measuring human strength, power, velocity, and change-of-direction. A systematic review of Cochrane Library, EBSCO, PubMed, Scielo, Scopus, SPORTDiscus, and Web of Science databases was performed, according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. From the 435 studies initially identified, 23 were fully reviewed, and their outcome measures were extracted and analyzed. In total, 11 mobile applications were analyzed and summarized for their validity and reliability to test movement velocity, movement time, movement displacement, power output, and workload. The present systematic review revealed that the tested apps are valid and reliable for measuring bar movement velocity during lower and upper body resistance exercises; however, systematic bias was detected with heavier loads.

An Interaction Path of Mothers' and Preschoolers' Food- and Physical Activity-Related Aspects in Disadvantaged Sicilian Urban Areas

Background: The relationship between mothers and their children’s lifestyle is still unclear, especially in disadvantaged areas. Consequently, the study aims to identify a path explaining the extent to which maternal eating habits and physical activity (PA) level predict food-related aspects, PA practice and Quotient of Gross Motor Development (QGMD) in preschoolers from disadvantaged urban areas. Methods: In this cross-sectional study, a total of 79 dyads of mothers and children were recruited from kindergartens. Information related to family socio-demographic aspects, mothers’ and children’s dietary intake frequencies and PA/sedentariness, mothers’ weight and height, mothers’ perception on children’s food intake, and children’s food literacy (FL) was collected with a questionnaire and the Food Literacy Assessment Tool (preschool-FLAT), while gross-motor skills were measured with the Test of Gross Motor Development (TGMD); weight and height of children were directly collected. Results: Associations were found between mothers’ and children’s food habits; mothers’ and children’s fruit/vegetables consumption, and intake of the other items; mothers’ education or PA level and children’s FL; mothers’ PA or sedentariness and children’s QGMD; mothers’ BMI and food habits and children’s BMI; education and food habits. Conclusions: These findings can be useful to plan effective interventions targeted both to preschoolers and their mothers of disadvantaged urban areas for promoting healthy lifestyles, which have become increasingly difficult to achieve during COVID-19 pandemic.

Using Anthropometric Data and Physical Fitness Scores to Predict Selection in a National U19 Rugby Union Team

The purpose of this study was to compare measures of anthropometry characteristics and physical fitness performance between rugby union players (17.9 ± 0.5 years old) recruited (n = 39) and non-recruited (n = 145) to the Portuguese under-19 (U19) national team, controlling for their playing position (forwards or backs). Standardized anthropometric, physical, and performance assessment tests included players’ body mass and height, push up and pull-up test, squat test, sit-and-reach test, 20 m shuttle run test, flexed arm hang test, Sargent test, handgrip strength test, Illinois agility test, and 20-m and 50-m sprint test. Results showed that recruited forwards players had better agility scores (p = 0.02, ES = −0.55) than the non-recruited forwards, whereas recruited backs players had higher right (p < 0.01, ES = 0.84) and left (p = 0.01, ES = 0.74) handgrip strength scores than their counterparts. Logistic regression showed that better agility (for the forwards) and right handgrip strength scores (for the backs) were the only variables significantly associated with an increased likelihood of being recruited to the national team. In sum, these findings suggest that certain well-developed physical qualities, namely, agility for the forwards players and upper-body strength for the back players, partially explain the selection of U19 rugby players to their national team.

Cognitive and Physical Activity-Related Aspects of Children Associated to the Performance of the Crunning Movement

The aim of this investigation was to identify possible related factors associated to the performance of the crunning test in European children and adolescents. A total number of 559 children and adolescents (age range 6-14 years) of which 308 boys (55.1%) and 251 girls (44.9%), from seven European countries, were screened. A questionnaire concerning demographic and personal life-related factors and a cognitive assessment were performed. A regression analysis was conducted with the performance measures of the crunning movement. T-tests and ANCOVA were used to analyze sub-group differences. Boys have greater crunning performance values compared to girls (5.55 s vs. 7.06 s, p < 0.001) and older children perform better than younger ones (R2 -0.23; p < 0.001). Children with healthy and active habits (exercising or spending time with family members vs. reading or surfing the internet) performed better in the test. Children engaged in team sports had better crunning performances compared to those engaged in individual sports (6.01 s vs. 6.66 s, p = 0.0166). No significant association was found regarding cognitive-related aspects in either children engaged in team or individual sports and the crunning performance. Older and male children performed better in the crunning test than younger and female children. Physical activity-related aspects of children's life are associated with crunning movement performance. No association was found between higher cognitive performance and the crunning test results.

Field-Based Health-Related Physical Fitness Tests in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review

Physical fitness (PF) is a multi-component construct and a biomarker of health. Worse PF is related to vulnerability and predicts worse academic achievements. Thus, assessing PF is important to monitor health in youth. This systematic review aimed to identify and inform physical education, health professionals and entities about existing PF batteries and field-tests that can be used in school settings. A comprehensive literature search was carried out in five electronic databases (Academic Search Complete, Education Resources Information Center, PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science) to identify PF battery protocols that can be carried out in the school setting. Overall, 24 PF batteries were identified. Regarding the PF components assessed, only cardiorespiratory fitness and upper body strength were contemplated in all batteries. Middle-body strength and lower body strength were presented in most batteries (21 and 19 of 24, respectively). Agility (16 of 24) and body composition (16 of 24) were also considered in several batteries, although to a lesser extent. Flexibility (14 of 24) and speed (12 of 24) were the PF components less represented in the batteries. Among the 24 identified PF batteries, 81 PF tests assessing the different PF components were encountered. The advances in the PF field-based assessment in school settings and health in youth resulted in the amplification of the number of existing batteries. Considering the connection between PF and health and the opportunity that the school setting provides to assess fitness in children and adolescents, there is a need for standardization and a consensus of PF assessments in this specific setting.

Effects of age and sex on field-based measures of muscle strength and power of the upper and lower body in adolescents

Field-based tests including the medicine ball chest throw (MBCT) and vertical jump are used to assess muscle performance. To date no study has compared performances of these field-based tests in adolescents across a range of ages. The aim of this study was to examine the effects of age and sex on MBCT and countermovement jump (CMJ) performance in adolescents.This cross-sectional study involved 2192 adolescents (1477 males and 715 females) aged between 12 and 17 years. Trials of the MBCT and CMJ were performed with CMJ peak power estimated. Males had significantly greater MBCT distance, CMJ height and CMJ peak power at each consecutive age group separated by 1 year (p < 0.001). Females generally showed significantly greater performances across a larger age range of at least 2 years for MBCT (p ≤ 0.004) and CMJ peak power (p ≤ 0.018). Males had greater performances than females for MBCT distance, CMJ height, and CMJ peak power from 13 years and above (p < 0.001). Sex differences widened with increasing age for all tests from ~5-8% at 12 years progressing to 24-29% at 16-17 years. This study shows the effects of age and sex is similar for both the MBCT and CMJ tests in adolescents.

Influence of Health Related Fitness on the Morphofunctional Condition of Second Mature Aged Women

To analyze the influence of health-related fitness on the condition of second mature aged women. Participants: 65 women divided into two groups. Group 1-40 women, (43.33 ± 0.93) years old and group 2-25 women (44.40 ± 0.93) years old. The participants trained for 8 months, three times a week for 1 h. Group 1 trained dance aerobics (Monday), strength fitness (Wednesday) and stretching (Friday). Group 2 trained only stretching. The body length and mass, handgrip strength test, vital capacity, blood pressure, heart rate, Stange and Genchi tests, and motion amplitude in joints were evaluated before and after the program. The significance of the differences between the groups was evaluated by Student's criterion (t) and Rosenbaum (Q). The different intensity of the health-related effect was confirmed at the end of the program. Physiometric indicators significantly increased in group 1. The complex physical activity led to a decrease in heart rate. The results of the Stange and Genchi tests significantly increased. Goniometric indicators of group 2 increased. The comparative analysis of the participants indicators confirms the generalized and higher health-related effect of the complex fitness program. The effect of such a program showed an increase of the adaptive potential, a significant increase in the functional capabilities of women, and the optimization of the studied indicators. With the same time expenditure for health-related fitness, the complex program has a more multifaceted effect in comparison with stretching.

Eating Behaviour and Physical Fitness in 10-Year-Old Children Attending General Education and Sports Classes

The aim of this study was to evaluate the body mass index (BMI), selected eating behaviour and physical fitness of children aged 10 years attending general education and sports classes in Siedlce. Subject children were 272 girls and boys mean aged 10.8-years attending general education (GC) and sports classes (SC). Survey questionnaires consisted of 18 questions about eating behaviour and physical activity. The BMI was determined for each child and compared with reference percentile charts. Eurofit testing was used to measure physical fitness. Increased physical fitness was positively correlated with beneficial eating behaviour among children. SC children showed significantly more frequent dietary intakes of milk, dairy products, poultry, fish, wholegrain bread, groats and vegetables when compared to GC ones. However, significantly more GC children ate red meat more frequently along with snacking on confectionery and savouries than SC ones. Most subjects fell within correct BMI percentile ranges. Underweight was more frequent in SC children at 12.85% than in GC children 9.88%. Overweight and obesity was most often observed in GC children (respectively 19.73% and 5.51%) compared to SC ones (respectively 14.37% and 3.8%). SC children achieved significantly better results in the Eurofit tests. The highest levels of physical fitness and most favourable BMIs and eating behaviour were observed more often among SC children than GC ones. The results confirmed the beneficial health effects of physical fitness for children.

Percentile values of the standing broad jump in children and adolescence aged 6-18 years old

The standing broad jump (SBJ) is a valid, reliable and feasible field-based test, which can evaluate explosive strength of the lower limbs and physical fitness. This study aimed to provide normative data for the SBJ for male and female children and adolescents and describe differences in performance between age groups and genders. A total number of 2140 children and adolescents, sampled in seven European nations have been included for analysis. The SBJ was performed to derive percentile values for gender and each age group. In general, males have greater jumping performance compared to females. Data demonstrate a linear increase in the jumping distance for both males and females until adolescence. However, such increase is evident in males up to 16-17 years old, whereas in females a plateau value is met at 12-13 years old, with a subsequent decrease in the jumping performance. No differences were present in jumping performance between male and female children, however differences between male and female adolescents were evinced. The study has provided percentile values useful to monitor the physical fitness status of children and adolescents.

Core Muscle Activity During Physical Fitness Exercises: A Systematic Review

The aim of this study was to systematically review the current literature on the electromyographic (EMG) activity of six core muscles (the rectus abdominis, the internal and external oblique, the transversus abdominis, the lumbar multifidus, and the erector spinae) during core physical fitness exercises in healthy adults. A systematic review of the literature was conducted on the Cochrane, EBSCO, PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science electronic databases for studies from January 2012 to March 2020. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses (PRISMA) guidelines were used. The inclusion criteria were as follows: (a) the full text available in English; (b) a cross-sectional or longitudinal (experimental or cohorts) study design; (c) the reporting of electromyographic activity as a percentage of maximum voluntary contraction (% MVIC), millivolts or microvolts; (d) an analysis of the rectus abdominis (RA), transversus abdominis (TA), lumbar multifidus (MUL), erector spinae (ES), and the internal (IO) or external oblique (EO); (e) an analysis of physical fitness exercises for core training; and (f) healthy adult participants. The main findings indicate that the greatest activity of the RA, EO, and ES muscles was found in free-weight exercises. The greatest IO activity was observed in core stability exercises, while traditional exercises showed the greatest MUL activation. However, a lack of research regarding TA activation during core physical fitness exercises was revealed, in addition to a lack of consistency between the studies when applying methods to measure EMG activity.