Environmental Life Cycle Assessment of Rapeseed and Rapeseed Oil Produced in Northern Europe: A Latvian Case Study

Trichoderma viride Colonizes the Roots of Brassica napus L., Alters the Expression of Stress-Responsive Genes, and Increases the Yield of Canola under Field Conditions during Drought

In this work, we present the results of the inoculation of canola seeds (Brassica napus L.) with Trichoderma viride strains that promote the growth of plants. Seven morphologically different strains of T. viride (TvI-VII) were shown to be capable of synthesizing auxins and exhibited cellulolytic and pectinolytic activities. To gain a deeper insight into the molecular mechanisms underlying canola-T. viride interactions, we analyzed the canola stress genes metallothioneins (BnMT1-3) and stringent response genes (BnRSH1-3 and BnCRSH). We demonstrated the presence of cis-regulatory elements responsive to fungal elicitors in the promoter regions of B. napus MT and RSH genes and observed changes in the levels of the transcripts of the above-mentioned genes in response to root colonization by the tested fungal strains. Of the seven tested strains, under laboratory conditions, T. viride VII stimulated the formation of roots and the growth of canola seedlings to the greatest extent. An experiment conducted under field conditions during drought showed that the inoculation of canola seeds with a suspension of T. viride VII spores increased yield by 16.7%. There was also a positive effect of the fungus on the height and branching of the plants, the number of siliques, and the mass of a thousand seeds. We suggest that the T. viride strain TvVII can be used in modern sustainable agriculture as a bioinoculant and seed coating to protect B. napus from drought.

Determination of biochemical indicators of winter rape seeds under different growing conditions

Purpose. To determine the biochemical indicators of seed quality of winter rape varieties grown under different conditions. Methods. During the research, the following methods were used: laboratory, calculation and statistical, to prepare conclusions – analysis and synthesis. Results. According to the results of laboratory studies, biochemical indicators of the quality of seeds of winter rape varieties, grown in different conditions, were established, namely: the content of oil, “crude protein” and glucosinolates. Meteorological conditions during the vegetation period of plants of the corresponding soil and climate zone have a significant influence on the quality indicators of seeds. Based on the results of the research, it was established that in 2022, compared to 2020, the biochemical indicators of winter rapeseed were higher. The increase in yield by 1.6 t/ha in the Steppe zone, 1.1 t/ha – Forest-Steppe, 1.4 t/ha – Polissia ensured an increase in oil content by 2.4% – Steppe, 6.6% – Forest-Steppe, 6.7% – Polissia and oil collection per hectare by 0.74 t/ha – Steppe and Polissia, 0.62 t/ha – Forest-Steppe. For the content of “crude protein”, a decrease in the index was observed, namely: by 3.1% in the Steppe zone, 5.8% in the Forest-Steppe and 5.0% in the Polissia in 2022 compared to 2020. Meteorological conditions of the research years in the corresponding soil and climatic zones had an influence on the content of glucosinolates. For the Steppe and Forest-Steppe zones, the indicators were identical and amounted to 0.7%, 0.8% (Polissia), while in 2021, for the Steppe and Polissia zones, the content of glucosinolates in rapeseed was 0.8% and 0.9% more, compared to the indicators obtained in other years of research. Conclusions. It was established that, on average, for 2020–2022, the total oil content in seeds of rape was 46.2% – Steppe, 47.5% – Forest-Steppe, 47.8% – Polissia; “crude protein” content – 19.6% – Steppe, 18.4% – Forest-Steppe, 17.9% – Polissia; the content of glucosinolates was 0.7% in the Steppe and Forest-steppe zones, 0.8% in the Polissia; oil collection in the Steppe zone 1.31 t/ha, Forest-Steppe – 1.16 t/ha, Polissia – 1.33 t/ha; protein collection per hectare is 0.54 t/ha in Steppe, 0.44 t/ha in Forest-Steppe and 0.48% in Polissia. Growing conditions over the years of research in the corresponding zone affect the formation of biochemical indicators of winter rapeseed.

Effect of the Bleaching Process on Changes in the Fatty Acid Profile of Raw Hemp Seed Oil (Cannabis sativa)

Many refined oils from soybean, rapeseed, and sunflower, among others, are available on the food market, except olive oil. Refining, on the small production scale of niche oils, is not used due to the high cost of the refining process. Unrefined oils are characterized by intense taste, odor, color, and undesirable nutrients. The problem to be solved is determining the effects of incomplete refining of niche oils on their composition. One process, which does not require the use of complex apparatus, is the bleaching process. The results presented in this article relate to the research stage, in which the aim is to evaluate the changes occurring in the oil due to the low-temperature bleaching process with different process parameters. The presented research results provide evidence of the absence of adverse changes in the fatty acid profile of hemp oil of the varieties 'Finola', 'Earlina 8FC', and 'Secuieni Jubileu'. Seven different types of bleaching earth were used to bleach the oil in amounts of 2.5 and 5 g/100 g of vegetable oil. The fatty acid profile was obtained by gas chromatography (GC-FID). The obtained chromatograms were subjected to statistical analysis and principal component analysis (PCA). The results show that there was no effect of the type of bleaching earth and its amount on the change in the fatty acid profile of bleached oils. Only real differences between the types of hemp oils were observed. However, an overall positive effect of the bleaching process on hemp oil was found. The amount of saturated fatty acid (SFA) was reduced by 17.1% compared with the initial value, resulting in an increase in the proportion of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) by 4.4%, resulting in an unsaturated fatty acid (UFA) proportion of 90%. There was a significant improvement in the SFA/PUFA ratio by 26% over the baseline, and the omega-6/omega-3 ratio by 8.9% to a value of 3.1:1. The new knowledge from this study is evidence of the positive effect of the low-temperature bleaching process on the fatty acid profile. In contrast, the parameters of the bleaching process itself are not significant.

Life cycle assessment of biodiesel production from rapeseed oil: Influence of process parameters and scale

Biodiesel has the potential to mitigate the fossil fuel-related carbon emission and energy insecurity challenges. There are limited studies examining the impacts of biodiesel production scales on the environmental impacts, while such information will be valuable for guiding practical system design. This work applied the approach of life cycle assessment to evaluate the environmental impacts of biodiesel production from rapeseed oil which accounts for 80% of the European biofuel market. It was shown that the centralized large-scale and localized small-scale biodiesel production schemes have annual global warming potential (GWP) of 2.63 and 2.88 tCO₂-eq/t biodiesel, where the rapeseed agriculture stage caused more than 65% carbon emissions. Sensitivity analysis revealed a high dependence of GWP on rapeseed yields, glycerol re-utilization strategy, and nitrogen nutrient in fertilizer. An alternative scenario was proposed for the large- and small-scale systems that could reduce carbon emissions by 14.1% and 33.6%.

More sustainable vegetable oil: Balancing productivity with carbon storage opportunities

Intensive cultivation and post-harvest vegetable oil production stages are major sources of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Variation between production systems and reporting disparity have resulted in discordance in previous emissions estimates. The aim of this study was to assess global systems-wide variation in GHG emissions resulting from palm, soybean, rapeseed and sunflower oil production. Such an analysis is critical to understand the implications of meeting increasing edible oil demand. To achieve this, we performed a unified re-analysis of life cycle input data from diverse palm, soybean, rapeseed, and sunflower oil production systems, from a saturating search of published literature. The resulting dataset reflects almost 6000 producers in 38 countries, and is representative of over 71% of global vegetable oil production. Across all oil crop systems, median GHG emissions were 3.81 kg CO2e per kg refined oil. Crop specific median emissions ranged from 2.49 kg CO2e for rapeseed oil to 4.25 kg CO2e for soybean oil per kg refined oil. Determination of the carbon cost of agricultural land occupation revealed that carbon storage potential in native compared to agricultural land cover drives variation in production GHG emissions, and indicates that expansion of production in low carbon storage potential land, whilst reforesting areas of high carbon storage potential, could reduce net GHG emissions whilst boosting productivity. Nevertheless, there remains considerable scope to improve sustainability within current production systems, including through increasing yields whilst limiting application of inputs with high carbon footprints, and in the case of palm oil through more widespread adoption of methane capture technologies in processing stages.

Perspectives of Biodiesel Development in Poland against the Background of the European Union

Biofuels are becoming more important in the renewable energy sources mix. Liquid biofuels are products of agriculture. Bioethanol can be prepared from corn, beetroot and other plants. Biodiesel is mainly made from rapeseed. This paper presents information about biodiesel development in Poland, as well as some background information about its development in the European Union (EU). We analyzed the data about biofuels in the literature, and provide statistical data about liquid biofuel in Poland and other countries of the EU. The aim of the study is to assess the viability of liquid biofuel development in Poland. The base for biodiesel production in Poland and the EU is rapeseed. The production yields and sown area of rapeseed increased in Poland from 2005–2020. This was due to integration and European Union policies which aim to supply clean energy. The energy mix in Poland differs from that of the EU. Solid biofuels have made up the biggest share of renewable energy sources in Poland (73.4%) and the EU (40.1%). Poland has smaller share of wind energy, biogas, heat pump, water energy, solar anergy, municipal waste and geothermal energy in its renewable energy sources compared to the rest of the EU. Only with solid and liquid biofuels is the share of renewable energy sources larger in Poland compared to the EU averages. Poland has decreased its share of solid biofuels and water energy among its renewable energy sources, while other sources have increased. Poland is investing to increase its renewable energy sources. To analyze the opportunities for biodiesel production in Poland, we used the scenario method of analysis. We outlined three scenarios. The first is increasing the production of biodiesel by 3% each year for the next three years. The second is production remains unchanged, i.e., at the 2020 level. The last scenario is decreasing production by 3% each year. According to the first scenario, the total demand for rapeseed for energy and food purposes will be 375 thousand tons in 2025. Such a scenario is very likely to occur because of the growing demand for biodiesel and edible oil. The current situation with Ukraine and the Russian Federation will create an increase in demand for rapeseed, leading to higher prices.

Does Climate Change Affect Rapeseed Production in Exporting and Importing Countries? Evidence from Market Dynamics Syntheses

Globally, non-cereal crops such as vegetable oils and their associated products will surpass cereals in demand by 2050, according to the World Bank (WB). Despite being considered an energy-efficient food crop, the production and supply capability of rapeseed is mostly influenced by climate conditions. Aiming in this context, the study explored how temperature and rainfall patterns influence rapeseed production, as well as how rapeseed prices in major trading countries may influence production and consumption patterns in developing countries. To do this, a supply and demand model approach has been employed for major exporting (Canada) and importing countries, i.e., China, the United States (U.S.) along with Bangladesh, a developing nation. The baseline study period was considered from 1991 to 2018, and simulations were performed up to 2040. The findings revealed that the most important effect on rapeseed yield is directly related to changes in temperature, which are positively related to the growing season but negatively related to the maturity stages of rapeseed in all studied countries. Rapeseed exports from Canada are expected to rise by 2040, while imports from China and the U.S. will rise simultaneously. In Canada, the per capita consumption of rapeseed oil is expected to increase from 16 to 24 kg per year between 2019 and 2040. Over the projection period, oil per capita consumption has steadily increased in China, the U.S., and Bangladesh. The relative demand for rapeseed oil is projected to increase by 2060, according to representative concentration pathways (RCPs). Therefore, it is necessary to determine market prices considering the probable climatic effect and increasing market demand for rapeseed to sustain the international market access of trading nations.

Integrating life cycle assessment and characterisation techniques: A case study of biodiesel production utilising waste Prunus Armeniaca seeds (PAS) and a novel catalyst

Prunus Armeniaca seed (PAS) oil was utilised as a waste biomass feedstock for biodiesel production via a novel catalytic system (SrO-La₂O₃) based on different stoichiometric ratios. The catalysts have been characterised and followed by a parametric analysis to optimise catalyst results. The catalyst with a stoichiometric ratio of Sr: La-8 (Sr-La-C) using parametric analysis showed an optimum yield of methyl esters is 97.28% at 65 °C, reaction time 75 min, catalyst loading 3 wt% and methanol to oil molar ratio of 9. The optimum catalyst was tested using various oil feedstocks such as waste cooking oil, sunflower oil, PAS oil, date seed oil and animal fat. The life cycle assessment was performed to evaluate the environmental impacts of biodiesel production utilising waste PAS, considering 1000 kg of biodiesel produced as 1 functional unit. The recorded results showed the cumulative abiotic depletion of fossil resources over the entire biodiesel production process as 22,920 MJ, global warming potential as 1150 kg CO₂ equivalent, acidification potential as 4.89 kg SO₂ equivalent and eutrophication potential as 0.2 kg PO₄^3- equivalent for 1 tonne (1000 kg) of biodiesel produced. Furthermore, the energy ratio (measured as output energy divided by input energy) for the entire production process was 1.97. These results demonstrated that biodiesel obtained from the valorisation of waste PAS provides a suitable alternative to fossil fuels.

Quality, Key Production Factors, and Consumption Volume of Niche Edible Oils Marketed in the European Union

Consumer’s awareness of the health-promoting aspects of food and their search for products with high nutritional value is driving increased interest in niche oils. Such oils are produced on a small scale due to limited access to raw material and its low oil content. The aim of this multi-criteria analysis was to position niche oils. Data for the study were collected based on a literature review regarding twenty-three niche oils available on the European Union market. Analysis of quality parameters, key production factors, waste reusability, and average annual consumption volume in 2015–2020 was performed. Based on the research, it was concluded that linseed (flaxseed) oil, hemp oil, mustard oil, raspberry seed oil, and sesame oil should be of the most interest to consumers. They are characterized by the highest content of tocopherols, sterols, polyphenols, and carotenoids, a favorable ratio of mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids, and pro-ecological and sustainable production technology. Based on the results of the study, the need for empirical research was identified, the key to filling the knowledge gaps in the area of edible niche oils.

Agricultural Eco-Efficiency: Challenges and Progress

The research on agricultural eco-efficiency has become an important point to deeply understand the interaction between ecological and environmental conditions and socio-economic factors as well as realize the coordinated development of agricultural economic development and environmental protection. (1) Background: This paper attempts to provide scientific support for the healthy and stable development of the agricultural economy and the sustainable development of ecological agriculture. (2) Methods: From a comprehensive perspective, this paper systematically analyze the overall situation, development trend, key fields, and hot fields of agricultural eco-efficiency in the past two decades. It consists of two complementary parts, including systematic quantitative literature review (based on CiteSpace) and traditional literature review. (3) Results: Agricultural eco-efficiency has evolved significantly with the popularization of agricultural machinery and the wide application of science and technology in the field of agricultural ecology. Its future development relies on the advances in our knowledge on theories and hypothesis, evaluation methods, impact on “socio-economic ecological” system, and drivers and regulation of agricultural eco-efficiency. For each of these fields, we find that challenges still exist. At present, the quantitative methods and index selection are not unified. We should deeply analyze the internal and external driving force of the development and change of ecological efficiency by constructing a complete theoretical framework for the research of agricultural ecological efficiency. At the same time, new technologies and methods are needed to evaluate agricultural eco-efficiency, and a balanced consensus between the improvement of agricultural eco-efficiency and the improvement of the ecological environment should be formed through empirical research.

Human Health and Ecosystem Quality Benefits with Life Cycle Assessment Due to Fungicides Elimination in Agriculture

Industrial agriculture results in environmental burdens due to the overuse of fertilizers and pesticides. Fungicides is a class of pesticides whose application contributes (among others) to human toxicity and ecotoxicity. The European Union aims to increase organic agriculture. For this reason, this work aims to analyze climate change, freshwater ecotoxicity, terrestrial ecotoxicity, human toxicity, (terrestrial) acidification, and freshwater eutrophication impacts of fungicides and calculate expected benefits to human health (per European citizen) and ecosystem quality (terrestrial) with life cycle assessment (LCA) during crop production. The Scopus database was searched for LCA studies that considered the application of fungicides to specific crops. The analysis shows how many systemic and contact fungicides were considered by LCA studies and what was the applied dosage. Furthermore, it shows that fungicides highly contribute to freshwater ecotoxicity, terrestrial ecotoxicity, human toxicity, and freshwater eutrophication for fruits and vegetables, but to a low extent compared to all considered environmental impacts in the case of cereals and rapeseed. Expected benefits to human health and ecosystem quality after fungicides elimination are greater for fruits and vegetables, ranging between 0 to 47 min per European citizen in a year and 0 to 90 species per year, respectively.

Assessing the Carbon Footprint of Biochar from Willow Grown on Marginal Lands in Finland

Willow biochar can help to sequestrate carbon. However, biomasses should not be grown on arable lands, as it would increase competition with food production and lead to sustainability issues such as increased food prices and decreased food security. The purpose of this study is to calculate the carbon footprint (CF) of willow biochar in Finland and assess the greenhouse gas compensation potential of marginal lands if they are utilized for willow biochar production. The CF of willow biochar is inadequately assessed together with marginal lands in the literature. A cradle-to-grave Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of willow biochar was conducted. The results were then applied to assess the total CF of marginal lands. It was found that the CF of willow biochar is −1875 kgCO2eq t−1 of dry biochar. Grown on marginal lands in Finland, willow biochar could compensate 7.7% of yearly agricultural greenhouse gas emissions. On buffer zones, willow biochar could also compensate some of the emissions depending on the zone size. The results of the study support current findings of biochar as a carbon negative product. The study also indicates that willow biochar produced in marginal lands can be used to compensate agricultural greenhouse gas emissions to some extent.