The Analysis of Trade Liberalization and Nutrition Intake for Improving Food Security across Districts in Indonesia

Moving towards food security in South Asian region: Assessing the role of agricultural trade openness, production and employment

Despite several accomplishments in addressing malnutrition, the issue of food scarcity remains a persistent concern all over the globe, particularly in the South Asian region. One recommended solution to address this situation involves advocating for further liberalization of global food trading and opening employment opportunities. In this context, using panel data spanning 2000-2019, this study makes a novel attempt to quantify the impact of agricultural trade openness and agricultural employment on food security in countries belonging to the South Asian region while controlling the tariff and agricultural production. Using "Fully Modified Ordinary Least Square (FMOLS)" and "Dynamic Ordinary Least Square (DOLS)" modeling, this article concludes that increased agricultural trade openness hinders food security in this region. Because, the member countries of South Asia are heavily reliant on food imports to meet their domestic needs, implying that the expenses of food imports exceed the potential benefits of increasing exports. Moreover, tariffs have a detrimental impact on food security in this region. However, production and employment in the agricultural industry augment earnings, strengthen the capacity to buy food, and ensure adequate nutrition intake over the long term. The study's findings suggest that these nations should prioritize food self-sufficiency to expand agricultural exports and lessen their reliance on imported food. More than that, economies should provide rewards to broaden their agricultural production locally, which aids in reducing hunger and uplifting food security.

The effects of trade liberalization on inequality in nutrition intake: empirical evidence from Indian districts

BACKGROUND

Despite the positive impact of trade liberalization on food availability in India, severe inequality in nutrition consumption at the district level persists. Empirical evidence on the relationship between trade liberalization and nutrition consumption inequality often offers a country-level perspective and generates disputed outcomes. The study aimed to explore the effects of trade liberalization on inequality in nutrition consumption at the district level in India and to examine the heterogeneity of the impact on different nutrition consumption.

METHODS

Our study employed the Gini Index to measure nutrition consumption inequality of 2 macronutrients and 5 micronutrients at the district level in India during 2009-2011, utilizing the comprehensive FAO/WHO individual food consumption data. The import tariff was adopted as a proxy for trade liberalization, as its externally imposed nature facilitates a causal interpretation. We further identified the direct causal relationship between food trade liberalization and inequality in nutrition consumption using a fixed effects model.

RESULTS

The results show that more than 50% of the individuals in the survey districts did not meet the dietary standards for both macronutrients and micronutrients. Food trade liberalization hindered the improvement of inequality in nutrition consumption. As import tariffs were reduced by 1%, the inequality in intake of calories, zinc, vitamin B1, and vitamin B2 increased significantly by 0.45, 0.56, 0.48, and 0.66, respectively, which might be related to food market performance. The results also highlight the positive role of the gender gap, female-headed households, and caste culture on inequality in nutrition consumption in India.

CONCLUSIONS

To ease the shock of liberalization and minimize its inequality effects, complementary measures should be adopted, such as improving food logistic conditions in poor areas, and nutrition relief schemes.

Characterizing the Structural Evolution of Cereal Trade Networks in the Belt and Road Regions: A Network Analysis Approach

Cereal trade is essential for economic and commercial cooperation among countries along the "Belt and Road" (BRI). It helps ensure food security and contributes to building a community of interests and destinies for the BRI countries. Based on the UN Comtrade database, this study, using a network analysis approach, investigates the structural characteristics and spatiotemporal dynamics of cereal trade networks among the "Belt and Road" countries. Results show that: (1) The cereal trade among the BRI countries has formed well-connected and complex trade networks, and the "Belt and Road" initiative has significantly promoted cereal trade networks among the BRI countries. (2) The backbone structures of cereal trade networks along the BRI are in geographical proximity. India, Russia, and Ukraine are the most important trading partners and absolute core nodes in the trade networks, influencing the entire cereal trade networks. (3) The BRI cereal trade networks exhibit significant core-periphery structures, with considerable power asymmetries between the countries reflecting food supply and demand differences. In general, the BRI cereal trade networks have developed from relatively diversified to polarized. Supply chains in the cereal trade network are dominated by a few large countries and are fragile, with weak resilience and low resistance to risk. Therefore, governments should continue to strengthen regional cooperation, optimize cereal trade network structure, enhance their reserve capacity, and build a stronger system to guarantee food security and prevent risk. All these measures will support the food security of the "Belt and Road" countries.