Regional Sub-Saharan Africa Total Diet Study in Benin, Cameroon, Mali and Nigeria Reveals the Presence of 164 Mycotoxins and Other Secondary Metabolites in Foods

Aflatoxins in Peanut (Arachis hypogaea): Prevalence, Global Health Concern, and Management from an Innovative Nanotechnology Approach: A Mechanistic Repertoire and Future Direction

Arachis hypogaea is the most significant oilseed nutritious legume crop in agricultural trade across the world. It is recognized as a valued crop for its contributions to nourishing food, as a cooking oil, and for meeting the protein needs of people who are unable to afford animal protein. Currently, its production, marketability, and consumption are hindered because of Aspergillus species infection that consequently contaminates the kernels with aflatoxins. Regarding health concerns, humans and animals are affected by acute and chronic aflatoxin toxicity and millions of people are at high risk of chronic levels. Most methods used to store peanuts are traditional and serve effectively for short-term storage. Now the question for long-term storage has been raised, and this promptly finds potential approaches to the issue. It is imperative to reduce the aflatoxin levels in peanuts to a permissible level by introducing detoxifying innovations. Most of the detoxification reports mention physical, chemical, and biological techniques. However, many current approaches are impractical because of time consumption, loss of nutritional quality, or weak detoxifying efficiency. Therefore, it is crucial to investigate practical, economical, and green methods to control Aspergillus flavus that address current global food security problems. Herein, a green and economically revolutionary way is a nanotechnology that has demonstrated its potential to connect farmers to markets, elevate international marketability, improve human and animal health conditions, and enhance food quality and safety by the management of fungal diseases. Due to the antimicrobial potential of nanoparticles, they act as nanofungicides and have an incredible role in the control of aflatoxins. Nanoparticles have ultrasmall sizes and therefore penetrate the fungal body and invade the pathogen machinery, leading to fungal cell death by ROS production, mutation in DNA, disruption of organelles, and membrane leakage. This is the first mechanistic overview that unveils a comprehensive insight into aflatoxin contamination in peanuts, its prevalence, health effects, and management in addition to nanotechnological interventions that serve as a triple defense approach to detoxify aflatoxins. The optimum use of nanofungicides ensures food safety and the development of goals, especially "zero hunger".

Postharvest Practices, Perceptions, and Knowledge of Mycotoxins among Groundnut Farmers in the Adamawa, Centre, and North Regions of Cameroon

In many parts of the world, including Cameroon, mycotoxin contamination of groundnuts remains a major constraint affecting their use as food. Understanding the contributing factors is an essential intervention to reduce contamination and people's exposure to these harmful toxins. The aim of this research was to identify the factors associated with the knowledge, perceptions, and postharvest practices of groundnut farmers in three production basins in Cameroon. Data were collected through surveys and analyzed using descriptive methods and logistic regression models. The results show that groundnut farmers are little aware of the existence of mycotoxins (12%) and totally unaware of the existence of aflatoxins (100%). Only 7.1% of these farmers are aware of the effects of mycotoxins on consumer health. After evaluation, the large majority of farmers scored poor marks for knowledge (86%) and practice (98.7%) in the management of mould and mycotoxins in groundnuts. Knowledge of mycotoxins was positively associated with the level of education [OR = 3.42; (95%-IC: 1.00-16.00); p < 0.05] and region [OR = 4.49; (95%-IC: 1.09-20.3); p < 0.05]. Farmers' good practices were linked to their production experience [OR = 6.06, (95% CI: 0.91-18.4), p = 0.035]. The use of mouldy groundnut for feed was associated with age [OR = 3.34, (95% CI: 1.14-10.2), p = 0.03], sex [OR = 0. 43, (IC-95%: 1.14-1.05), p = 0.026], marital status [OR = 0.35, (IC-95%: 0.14-0.79), p = 0.015], and production region [OR = 0.27, (IC-95%: 0.13-0.56)]. In conclusion, groundnut farmers had insufficient knowledge of mycotoxins, no knowledge of aflatoxins, and suboptimal handling and storage practices for this commodity. This contributes to increasing the risk of exposure for the population and requires mitigation measures, including awareness campaigns on mycotoxins, specifically aflatoxins, and capacity building for farmers in terms of storage and postharvest management of foodstuffs.

Incidence and health risk assessment of hydrogen cyanide and multi-mycotoxins in Nigerian garri

Garri is a granular, starchy food prepared by the fermentation of mashed cassava. Hydrogen cyanide (HCN) and mycotoxins are contaminants in certain foods at different points along the food value chain. The incidence and contamination levels of HCN and multi-mycotoxins in garri from five agroecological zones of Nigeria were determined using a spectrophotometric method and ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectroscopy (UHPLC-MS/MS), respectively. The health risk associated with the consumption of contaminated garri was assessed. The health risk assessment model was used to calculate the dietary exposure of humans to the mycotoxins in garri. This was done by estimating the daily intake (EDI), the percentage tolerable daily intake (%TDI), the annual hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cases attributable to exposure to aflatoxins (AFs) in garri, as well as the HCC risk. The average intake of garri was estimated at 0.303 kg/day for a Nigerian adult. The incidence of HCN was 98.3% (0.056-2.463 mg/kg), and fermentation reduced the HCN level in garri more than other processing steps. The twenty-one mycotoxins identified and quantified were all within maximum levels, as applicable to those that are regulated by the EU. The %TDI for the other mycotoxins, with the exception of AFs, showed no alarming health risk with garri consumption. Annual HCC cases resulting from AF in garri were estimated at 10-60 cases for HBsAg + ve individuals and 4-23 cases for HBsAg - ve individuals based on 8.1% hepatitis B virus (HBV) incidence. Results further revealed no interdependence between HCN levels and mycotoxin content. This work suggests an unlikely chance of acute toxicity from HCN and major mycotoxins from a garri-based diet in Nigeria. Hence, it is recommended that concerned regulatory bodies maintain the existing permissible limits for HCN in Garri.

C-O Coupling of Hydrazones with Diacetyliminoxyl Radical Leading to Azo Oxime Ethers-Novel Antifungal Agents

Selective oxidative C-O coupling of hydrazones with diacetyliminoxyl is demonstrated, in which diacetyliminoxyl plays a dual role. It is an oxidant (hydrogen atom acceptor) and an O-partner for the oxidative coupling. The reaction is completed within 15-30 min at room temperature, is compatible with a broad scope of hydrazones, provides high yields in most cases, and requires no additives, which makes it robust and practical. The proposed reaction leads to the novel structural family of azo compounds, azo oxime ethers, which were discovered to be highly potent fungicides against a broad spectrum of phytopathogenic fungi (Venturia inaequalis, Rhizoctonia solani, Fusarium oxysporum, Fusarium moniliforme, Bipolaris sorokiniana, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum).

Engineering Escherichia coli for efficient assembly of heme proteins

BACKGROUND

Heme proteins, such as hemoglobin, horseradish peroxidase and cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzyme, are highly versatile and have widespread applications in the fields of food, healthcare, medical and biological analysis. As a cofactor, heme availability plays a pivotal role in proper folding and function of heme proteins. However, the functional production of heme proteins is usually challenging mainly due to the insufficient supply of intracellular heme.

RESULTS

Here, a versatile high-heme-producing Escherichia coli chassis was constructed for the efficient production of various high-value heme proteins. Initially, a heme-producing Komagataella phaffii strain was developed by reinforcing the C4 pathway-based heme synthetic route. Nevertheless, the analytical results revealed that most of the red compounds generated by the engineered K. phaffii strain were intermediates of heme synthesis which were unable to activate heme proteins. Subsequently, E. coli strain was selected as the host to develop heme-producing chassis. To fine-tune the C5 pathway-based heme synthetic route in E. coli, fifty-two recombinant strains harboring different combinations of heme synthesis genes were constructed. A high-heme-producing mutant Ec-M13 was obtained with negligible accumulation of intermediates. Then, the functional expression of three types of heme proteins including one dye-decolorizing peroxidase (Dyp), six oxygen-transport proteins (hemoglobin, myoglobin and leghemoglobin) and three CYP153A subfamily CYP enzymes was evaluated in Ec-M13. As expected, the assembly efficiencies of heme-bound Dyp and oxygen-transport proteins expressed in Ec-M13 were increased by 42.3-107.0% compared to those expressed in wild-type strain. The activities of Dyp and CYP enzymes were also significantly improved when expressed in Ec-M13. Finally, the whole-cell biocatalysts harboring three CYP enzymes were employed for nonanedioic acid production. High supply of intracellular heme could enhance the nonanedioic acid production by 1.8- to 6.5-fold.

CONCLUSION

High intracellular heme production was achieved in engineered E. coli without significant accumulation of heme synthesis intermediates. Functional expression of Dyp, hemoglobin, myoglobin, leghemoglobin and CYP enzymes was confirmed. Enhanced assembly efficiencies and activities of these heme proteins were observed. This work provides valuable guidance for constructing high-heme-producing cell factories. The developed mutant Ec-M13 could be employed as a versatile platform for the functional production of difficult-to-express heme proteins.

The relationship between ochratoxin A and blood pressure in adolescents

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a chemical produced by some fungal species, and although its toxic effects have been shown in many animal studies, there are limited studies in humans. We aimed to examine the relationship between OTA and hypertension. 50 newly diagnosed hypertensive patients and 33 healthy individuals aged between 12 and 14 were included in the study. Anthropometric measurements, blood pressure measurements, complete blood count, blood biochemical parameters, urine lead level and urine OTA level were measured. OTA was detected in the urine samples of 90.9% of the control group, 100% of the hypertensive group and 85.7% of the obese+hypertensive group. Median urinary OTA was 32.9 ng/g creatinine for hypertensive group, 32.2 ng/g creatinine for hypertensive+obese group, 18.8 ng/g creatinine for the control group. Multivariate logistic regression analysis revealed a positive association between last quartile of urinary OTA level and being hypertensive [AOR:5.93 (95%CI: 1.27-27.61)] in adolescents without obesity. Hypertensive cases could be evaluated for OTA exposure in further studies.

Recent Progress on Techniques in the Detection of Aflatoxin B1 in Edible Oil: A Mini Review

Contamination of agricultural products and foods by aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is becoming a serious global problem, and the presence of AFB1 in edible oil is frequent and has become inevitable, especially in underdeveloped countries and regions. As AFB1 results from a possible degradation of aflatoxins and the interaction of the resulting toxic compound with food components, it could cause chronic disease or severe cancers, increasing morbidity and mortality. Therefore, rapid and reliable detection methods are essential for checking AFB1 occurrence in foodstuffs to ensure food safety. Recently, new biosensor technologies have become a research hotspot due to their characteristics of speed and accuracy. This review describes various technologies such as chromatographic and spectroscopic techniques, ELISA techniques, and biosensing techniques, along with their advantages and weaknesses, for AFB1 control in edible oil and provides new insight into AFB1 detection for future work. Although compared with other technologies, biosensor technology involves the cross integration of multiple technologies, such as spectral technology and new nano materials, and has great potential, some challenges regarding their stability, cost, etc., need further studies.

A review of toxigenic fungi and mycotoxins in feeds and food commodities in West Africa

Fungal contamination is a threat to food safety in West Africa with implications for food and feed due to their climate, which is characterised by high temperatures and high relative humidity, which are environmental favourable for fast fungal growth and mycotoxin production. This report gives perspective on studies on toxigenic fungi (Aspergillus, Fusarium and Penicillium) and their toxins, mainly aflatoxins, fumonisins and ochratoxins commonly found in some West African countries, including Benin, Burkina Faso, Gambia, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, and Togo. Only four of these countries have mycotoxins regulations in place for feeds and food products (Ghana, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, and Senegal). Food commodities that are widely consumed and were thoroughly investigated in this region include cereals, peanuts, cassava chips (flakes), cassava flour, chilies, peanuts, locust beans, melon, and yam products. In conclusion, authorities and scientists needed to consider research and approaches to monitor mycotoxins in foods and feeds produced and consumed in West Africa.

Rapid and sensitive UHPLC-MS/MS methods for dietary sample analysis of 43 mycotoxins in China total diet study

INTRODUCTION

Mycotoxins are toxic metabolites produced by fungi that commonly contaminate foods. As recommended by the World Health Organization, total diet study (TDS) is the most efficient and effective way to estimate the dietary intakes of certain chemical substances for general populations. It requires sensitive and reliable analytical methods applicable to a wide range of complex food matrices and ready-to-eat dishes.

OBJECTIVES

A novel strategy with high selectivity and sensitivity, incorporating three methods based on ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS), was designed for measuring 43 mycotoxins in dietary samples in a China TDS.

METHODS

The 43 mycotoxins were divided into 3 groups for analysis to achieve better performance. For each group, an UHPLC-MS/MS method was developed to determine the target compounds after clean-up by solid phase extraction. A total of 21 isotope internal standards were employed for accurate quantitation. Method validation in terms of linearity, selectivity, sensitivity, accuracy, and precision was performed for all the 43 mycotoxins in 12 complex food matrices.

RESULTS

The limits of detection (LODs) and limits of quantitation (LOQs) were 0.002-1 ng mL^-1 and 0.006-3 ng mL^-1, respectively. The method recoveries of the 43 mycotoxins spiked in 12 food categories were in the range of 60.3%-175.9% after internal standard correction, with relative standard deviations (RSDs) below 13.9%. For practical application, this method was utilized for 72 dietary samples collected from 6 provinces in the 6th China TDS. More than 80% of the samples were found contaminated by mycotoxins. DON, SMC, FB₁, ZEN, BEA, ENNB₁, and ENNB were most detected.

CONCLUSIONS

The proposed methods with high sensitivity, accuracy, and robustness provide powerful tools for multi-mycotoxin monitoring and dietary exposure assessment, allowing 43 mycotoxins, including some emerging mycotoxins, to be accurately investigated in a total diet study for the first time.

4-Nitropyrazolin-5-ones as Readily Available Fungicides of the Novel Structural Type for Crop Protection: Atom-Efficient Scalable Synthesis and Key Structural Features Responsible for Activity

The development of new types of fungicides for agriculture and medicine is highly desirable due to the uprising fungal resistance against commonly used compounds. Herein, 4-substituted-4-nitropyrazolin-5-ones (nitropyrazolones) were proposed as highly active fungicides of the novel structural type. The first scalable and practical method for the nitropyrazolone synthesis was proposed, which is atom-efficient, is applicable for the multigram scale synthesis, and allows for production of a wide variety of nitropyrazolones with high yields and purity. The synthesized compounds demonstrated high fungicidal activity against the broad spectrum of phytopathogenic fungi (Venturia inaequalis, Rhizoctonia solani, Fusarium oxysporum, Fusarium moniliforme, Bipolaris sorokiniana, and Sclerotinia sclerotiorum). Their mycelium growth inhibiting activity was comparable or superior to that of kresoxim-methyl. In vitro activity against Staphyloccocus aureus, Candida albicans, and Aspergillus niger revealed that nitropyrazolones are promising candidates against human pathogens. The key factors for the manifestation of high fungicidal activity were established to be an aromatic substituent on the N1 atom and small substituents, such as methyl, at the C3 and C4 positions of the pyrazolone ring.

Effect of Popcorn (Zea mays var. everta) Popping Mode (Microwave, Hot Oil, and Hot Air) on Fumonisins and Deoxynivalenol Contamination Levels

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites that are produced by molds during their development. According to fungal physiological particularities, mycotoxins can contaminate crops before harvest or during storage. Among toxins that represent a real public health issue, those produced by Fusarium genus in cereals before harvest are of great importance since they are the most frequent in European productions. Among them, deoxynivalenol (DON) and fumonisins (FUM) frequently contaminate maize. In recent years, numerous studies have investigated whether food processing techniques can be exploited to reduce the levels of these two mycotoxins, which would allow the identification and quantification of parameters affecting mycotoxin stability. The particularity of the popcorn process is that it associates heat treatment with a particular physical phenomenon (i.e., expansion). Three methods exist to implement the popcorn transformation process: hot air, hot oil, and microwaves, all of which are tested in this study. The results show that all popping modes significantly reduce FUM contents in both Mushroom and Butterfly types of popcorn. The mean initial contamination of 1351 µg/kg was reduced by 91% on average after popping. For DON, the reduction was less important despite a lower initial contamination than for FUM (560 µg/kg). Only the hot oil popping for the Mushroom type significantly reduced the contamination up to 78% compared to unpopped controls. Hot oil popping appears to provide the most important reduction for the two considered mycotoxins for both types of popcorn (−98% and −58% average reduction for FUM and DON, respectively).

Inclusive growth and environmental sustainability: the role of institutional quality in sub-Saharan Africa

Growth and environment literature has gained much attention in recent times. However, the emphasis was laid on the conventional economic growth or gross domestic product at the expense of the category of growth that is evenly shared and whose social benefits are far reaching than just an increase in the overall economic pie. It is on this note that the present paper looks at the type of relationship between growth and environment with particular emphasis on growth that is all inclusive. Data are sourced from World Governance and Development Indicators (WGI and WDI) and an index of inclusive growth constructed using principal component analysis (PCA). The findings indicate that institutional quality plays a major role in enhancing growth-environmental sustainability. The results further find a new phenomenon called environmental inclusive-growth Kuznets curve (EIKC) and added to the EKC debate. That is, at the early phase of inclusive growth, environmental degradation rises as well but environmental quality improves with the rise in inclusive growth at a higher phase of the relationship. The study recommends that policymakers should encourage the economies of sub-Saharan Africa to pursue inclusive growth and not compromise it for sustainability since sustainability comes later. Institutional quality which serves as a transmission mechanism in the study can as well be used as a robust and efficient structure to avoid adverse environmental externalities of inclusive growth.

Impact of Mycotoxins on Animals' Oxidative Status

Mycotoxins appear to be the "Achilles' heel" of the agriculture sector inducing enormous economic losses and representing a severe risk to the health of humans and animals. Although novel determination protocols have been developed and legislation has been implemented within Europe, the side effects of mycotoxins on the homeostatic mechanisms of the animals have not been extensively considered. Feed mycotoxin contamination and the effects on the antioxidant status of livestock (poultry, swine, and ruminants) are presented. The findings support the idea that the antioxidant systems in both monogastrics and ruminants are challenged under the detrimental effect of mycotoxins by increasing the toxic lipid peroxidation by-product malondialdehyde (MDA) and inhibiting the activity of antioxidant defense mechanisms. The degree of oxidative stress is related to the duration of contamination, co-contamination, the synergetic effects, toxin levels, animal age, species, and productive stage. Since the damaging effects of MDA and other by-products derived by lipid peroxidation as well as reactive oxygen species have been extensively studied on human health, a more integrated monitoring mechanism (which will take into account the oxidative stability) is urgently required to be implemented in animal products.

African Cuisine-Centered Insulin Therapy: Expert Opinion on the Management of Hyperglycaemia in Adult Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

The prevalence of diabetes in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is growing rapidly, and a steadily increasing number of adults are estimated to be living with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Insulin therapy is the treatment of choice in patients who present with severe hyperglycaemia and in most of those who do not achieve target goals on oral hypoglycaemic agents. Initiating treatment with the appropriate type of insulin based on the meal patterns and lifestyle of the individual patient is a strategy that is more likely than others to improve glycaemic control and adherence. African cuisine typically has a high carbohydrate load. Given these predominantly carbohydrate-rich food habits, it is essential to modify this dietary pattern whilst at the same time ensuring that insulin therapy is initiated, titrated and maintained in a timely manner, as needed to suit the patient's habits. To date, there are no published clinical guidelines to guide practitioners and patients on tailoring insulin to match the high carbohydrate content in African cuisine. To address this gap, we have reviewed current insulin therapy practices and propose a patient-centric guide to insulin therapy based on African cuisine. A literature search was conducted for studies published in English up to November 2019 that focused on the choice of insulin and its dosing in relation to African foods. All articles extracted were reviewed by an expert group. The recommendation of the expert group was that basal-bolus and premix insulin regimens are best suited to manage post-meal glycaemia in African cuisine. The timing and constituents of the meal, portion sizes, glycaemic load and glycaemic index of meals should be considered when choosing the type of insulin and insulin regimen. Assessment of individual preferences and comorbidities should be prioritised and form an integral part of diabetes management.

Multi-mycotoxin contamination of green tea infusion and dietary exposure assessment in Moroccan population

Green tea infusion is one of the most widely drunk beverages worldwide due to its health benefits associated with microelements, essential oils, and polyphenols, etc. Several studies have reported that green tea is subjected to contamination by various toxigenic fungi. Thus, this work aims to investigate the co-occurrence of 15 mycotoxins [four aflatoxins (AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2), ochratoxin A (OTA), beauvericin (BEA), four enniatins (ENA, ENA1, ENB, ENB1), zearalenone (ZEN), alternariol (AOH), tentoxin (TENT), T-2 and HT-2 toxins] in green tea samples available in Morocco by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry method. Analytical and consumption data were then used to assess the dietary exposure for the population. Out of 111 total green tea samples, 62 (56%) were contaminated by at least one mycotoxin. The most found mycotoxins in samples were AOH (40%), ZEN (35%), AFG1 (2%), AFB2 (2%), ENB (2%) and TENT (1%). The highest level was found for ZEN with 45.8 ng/g. There is no sample that exceeded the recommended levels set by European Pharmacopoeia for certain mycotoxins in plant material. Although multi-mycotoxin co-occurred in samples (33%), the probable estimated daily intake values show that the intake of mycotoxins through the consumption of green tea does not represent a risk for the population.

Multi-Mycotoxin Occurrence in Dairy Cattle and Poultry Feeds and Feed Ingredients from Machakos Town, Kenya

Mycotoxins are common in grains in sub-Saharan Africa and negatively impact human and animal health and production. This study assessed occurrences of mycotoxins, some plant, and bacterial metabolites in 16 dairy and 27 poultry feeds, and 24 feed ingredients from Machakos town, Kenya, in February and August 2019. We analyzed the samples using a validated multi-toxin liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method. A total of 153 mycotoxins, plant, and bacterial toxins, were detected in the samples. All the samples were co-contaminated with 21 to 116 different mycotoxins and/or metabolites. The commonly occurring and EU regulated mycotoxins reported were; aflatoxins (AFs) (70%; range 0.2–318.5 μg/kg), deoxynivalenol (82%; range 22.2–1037 μg/kg), ergot alkaloids (70%; range 0.4–285.7 μg/kg), fumonisins (90%; range 32.4–14,346 μg/kg), HT-2 toxin (3%; range 11.9–13.8 μg/kg), ochratoxin A (24%; range 1.1–24.3 μg/kg), T-2 toxin (4%; range 2.7–5.2 μg/kg) and zearalenone (94%; range 0.3–910.4 μg/kg). Other unregulated emerging mycotoxins and metabolites including Alternaria toxins, Aspergillus toxins, bacterial metabolites, cytochalasins, depsipeptides, Fusarium metabolites, metabolites from other fungi, Penicillium toxins, phytoestrogens, plant metabolites, and unspecific metabolites were also detected at varying levels. Except for total AFs, where the average contamination level was above the EU regulatory limit, all the other mycotoxins detected had average contamination levels below the limits. Ninety-six percent of all the samples were contaminated with more than one of the EU regulated mycotoxins. These co-occurrences may cause synergistic and additive health effects thereby hindering the growth of the Kenyan livestock sector.

Human dietary exposure to chemicals in sub-Saharan Africa: safety assessment through a total diet study

BACKGROUND

Human dietary exposure to chemicals can result in a wide range of adverse health effects. Some substances might cause non-communicable diseases, including cancer and coronary heart diseases, and could be nephrotoxic. Food is the main human exposure route for many chemicals. We aimed to assess human dietary exposure to a wide range of food chemicals.

METHODS

We did a total diet study in Benin, Cameroon, Mali, and Nigeria. We assessed 4020 representative samples of foods, prepared as consumed, which covered more than 90% of the diet of 7291 households from eight study centres. By combining representative dietary surveys of countries with findings for concentrations of 872 chemicals in foods, we characterised human dietary exposure.

FINDINGS

Exposure to lead could result in increases in adult blood pressure up to 2·0 mm Hg, whereas children might lose 8·8-13·3 IQ points (95th percentile in Kano, Nigeria). Morbidity factors caused by coexposure to aflatoxin B1 and hepatitis B virus, and sterigmatocystin and fumonisins, suggest several thousands of additional liver cancer cases per year, and a substantial contribution to the burden of chronic malnutrition in childhood. Exposure to 13 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from consumption of smoked fish and edible oils exceeded levels associated with possible carcinogenicity and genotoxicity health concerns in all study centres. Exposure to aluminium, ochratoxin A, and citrinin indicated a public health concern about nephropathies. From 470 pesticides tested across the four countries, only high concentrations of chlorpyrifos in smoked fish (unauthorised practice identified in Mali) could pose a human health risk.

INTERPRETATION

Risks characterised by this total diet study underscore specific priorities in terms of food safety management in sub-Saharan Africa. Similar investigations specifically targeting children are crucially needed.

FUNDING

Standards and Trade Development Facility.

Application of LC-MS/MS in the Mycotoxins Studies

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by fungi of different species (mainly Aspergillus, Fusarium, and Penicillium) with toxic effects for humans and animals that can contaminate food and feed [...].

Aflatoxins: Producing-Molds, Structure, Health Issues and Incidence in Southeast Asian and Sub-Saharan African Countries

This review aims to update the main aspects of aflatoxin production, occurrence and incidence in selected countries, and associated aflatoxicosis outbreaks. Means to reduce aflatoxin incidence in crops were also presented, with an emphasis on the environmentally-friendly technology using atoxigenic strains of Aspergillus flavus. Aflatoxins are unavoidable widespread natural contaminants of foods and feeds with serious impacts on health, agricultural and livestock productivity, and food safety. They are secondary metabolites produced by Aspergillus species distributed on three main sections of the genus (section Flavi, section Ochraceorosei, and section Nidulantes). Poor economic status of a country exacerbates the risk and the extent of crop contamination due to faulty storage conditions that are usually suitable for mold growth and mycotoxin production: temperature of 22 to 29 °C and water activity of 0.90 to 0.99. This situation paralleled the prevalence of high liver cancer and the occasional acute aflatoxicosis episodes that have been associated with these regions. Risk assessment studies revealed that Southeast Asian (SEA) and Sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries remain at high risk and that, apart from the regulatory standards revision to be more restrictive, other actions to prevent or decontaminate crops are to be taken for adequate public health protection. Indeed, a review of publications on the incidence of aflatoxins in selected foods and feeds from countries whose crops are classically known for their highest contamination with aflatoxins, reveals that despite the intensive efforts made to reduce such an incidence, there has been no clear tendency, with the possible exception of South Africa, towards sustained improvements. Nonetheless, a global risk assessment of the new situation regarding crop contamination with aflatoxins by international organizations with the required expertise is suggested to appraise where we stand presently.

Levels of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in foods from the first regional Sub-Saharan Africa Total Diet Study

For the first time, a multi-centre Total Diet Study was carried out in Benin, Cameroon, Mali and Nigeria. We collected and prepared as consumed 528 typical fatty foods from those areas and pooled these subsamples into 44 composites samples. These core foods were tested for a wide spectrum of POPs, including polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), brominated flame-retardants (BFRs), organochlorine compounds (OCs), perfluoro alkyl substances (PFAS) and chlorinated flame retardants (CFRs). The POPs contamination levels were similar or lower than those reported in total diet studies previously conducted worldwide. In most cases, core foods belonging to fish food group presented higher POPs concentrations than the other food groups. Interestingly, we observed a difference in both contamination profile and concentration for smoked fish compared to non-smoked fish. Such finding suggests that the smoking process itself might account for a large proportion of the contamination. Further investigation would require the assessment of combustion materials used to smoke fish as a potential vehicle, which may contribute to the dietary exposure of the studied populations to POPs.

A method to prioritize the surveillance of chemicals in food commodities to access international market and its application to four countries in Sub-Saharan Africa

The purpose of this study was to propose an approach to predict the distribution of chemicals in food in developing countries to assess consumer risk and access to the international market with a limited number of laboratory analyses. The first step consists of identifying the GEMS/Food Contaminants database and the chemical/food combination relevant for a particular country. The identification of critical chemical/food combination should be used to prioritize the analysis to be performed in a total diet study (TDS). The second step consists of modelling a distribution model based on the mean concentration generated from TDS associated with the variability observed in a larger dataset consisting of individual food contamination data from the GEMS food database. The simulated distributions may provide information regarding how to establish food safety standards and to assess the potential for accessing international market in the context of a value chain. This method is illustrated by case studies from the recent Regional TDS (RTDS) conducted in Sub Saharan Africa. We concluded that further work is needed to gain experience and to fully validate this approach. However, organized data sharing and developing harmonized methods for data analysis are key roles for international organizations, such as FAO, WHO, and WTO. Finally, it is important to remember that such a data-driven approach still requires significant investments in terms of human resources and analytical capacity.

Advances in Occurrence, Importance, and Mycotoxin Control Strategies: Prevention and Detoxification in Foods

Mycotoxins are toxic substances that can infect many foods with carcinogenic, genotoxic, teratogenic, nephrotoxic, and hepatotoxic effects. Mycotoxin contamination of foodstuffs causes diseases worldwide. The major classes of mycotoxins that are of the greatest agroeconomic importance are aflatoxins, ochratoxins, fumonisins, trichothecenes, emerging Fusarium mycotoxins, enniatins, ergot alkaloids, Alternaria toxins, and patulin. Thus, in order to mitigate mycotoxin contamination of foods, many control approaches are used. Prevention, detoxification, and decontamination of mycotoxins can contribute in this purpose in the pre-harvest and post-harvest stages. Therefore, the purpose of the review is to elaborate on the recent advances regarding the occurrence of main mycotoxins in many types of important agricultural products, as well as the methods of inactivation and detoxification of foods from mycotoxins in order to reduce or fully eliminate them.

Occurrence and Co-Occurrence of Mycotoxins in Cereal-Based Feed and Food

Dietary (co)-exposure to mycotoxins is associated with human and animal health concerns as well as economic losses. This study aims to give a data-based insight from the scientific literature on the (co-)occurrence of mycotoxins (i.e., parent and modified forms) in European core cereals, and to estimate potential patterns of co-exposure in humans and animals. Mycotoxins were mainly reported in wheat and maize showing the highest concentrations of fumonisins (FBs), deoxynivalenol (DON), aflatoxins (AFs), and zearalenone (ZEN). The maximum concentrations of FB1+FB2 were reported in maize both in feed and food and were above legal maximum levels (MLs). Similar results were observed in DON-food, whose max concentrations in wheat, barley, maize, and oat exceeded the MLs. Co-occurrence was reported in 54.9% of total records, meaning that they were co-contaminated with at least two mycotoxins. In the context of parental mycotoxins, co-occurrence of DON was frequently observed with FBs in maize and ZEN in wheat; DON + NIV and DON + T2/HT2 were frequently reported in barley and oat, respectively. Apart from the occurrence of ZEN and its phase I and phase II modified forms, only a limited number of quantified data were available for other modified forms; i.e., mainly the acetyl derivatives of DON. Data gaps are highlighted together with the need for monitoring studies on multiple mycotoxins to identify co-occurrence patterns for parent mycotoxins, metabolites, and their modified forms.

Developing Gold Nanoparticles-Conjugated Aflatoxin B1 Antifungal Strips

Lateral flow immunochromatographic assays are a powerful diagnostic tool for point-of-care tests, based on their simplicity, specificity, and sensitivity. In this study, a rapid and sensitive gold nanoparticle (AuNP) immunochromatographic strip is produced for detecting aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) in suspicious fungi-contaminated food samples. The 10 nm AuNPs were encompassed by bovine serum albumin (BSA) and AFB1 antibody. Thin-layer chromatography, gel electrophoresis and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy were employed for analysing the chemical complexes. Various concentrations of AFB1 antigen (0-16 ng/mL) were tested with AFB1 antibody-BSA-AuNPs (conjugated AuNPs) and then analysed by scanning electron microscopy, ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy, and Zetasizer. The results showed that the AFB1 antibody was coupled to BSA by the N-hydroxysuccinimide ester method. The AuNPs application has the potential to contribute to AFB1 detection by monitoring a visible colour change from red to purple-blue, with a detection limit of 2 ng/mL in a 96-well plate. The lateral flow immunochromatographic strip tests are rapid, taking less than 10 min., and they have a detection capacity of 10 ng/g. The smartphone analysis of strips provided the results in 3 s, with a detection limit of 0.3 ng/g for AFB1 when the concentration was below 10 ng/g. Excellent agreement was found with AFB1 determination by high-performance liquid chromatography in the determination of AFB1 among 20 samples of peanuts, corn, rice, and bread.

Occurrence of 30 trace elements in foods from a multi-centre Sub-Saharan Africa Total Diet Study: Focus on Al, As, Cd, Hg, and Pb

This paper reports occurrence data related to 30 trace elements in food composite samples from a multi-regional Sub-Saharan Africa Total Diet Study. Herein, 2700 samples grouped in 225 food composite samples corresponding to 13 food groups: cereals, tubers, legumes, vegetables, fruits, nuts/seeds, meat, eggs, fish, milk/dairy, oil/fats, and beverages from eight locations in four countries, namely Benin (Littoral/Borgou), Cameroon (Duala/North), Mali (Bamako/Sikasso), and Nigeria (Lagos/Kano) were prepared as consumed, pooled, and analysed using a validated method based on inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry. The occurrence data for Al, As, Cd, Hg, and Pb as regulated by the Codex Alimentarius are discussed herein. Although the levels of As, Cd, Hg, and Pb were above the limit of quantification, they were below the maximum limits set by the Codex in most samples analysed. A distinct feature was observed for cereals and tubers, as they were mostly contaminated with Al and Pb. A pilot study regarding the impact of using artisanal cookware (made from recycled aluminium) on the contamination of food samples was performed. Relevant contamination with Al and Pb when cooking tomato samples from Cameroon and Nigeria using artisanal aluminium cookware was compared to that when cooked using stainless-steel.

Screening of Various Metabolites in Six Barley Varieties Grown under Natural Climatic Conditions (2016-2018)

Climatic changes influence considerably the distribution and occurrence of different secondary metabolites in cereals. The aim of this investigation was to assess the changes in metabolite prevalence observed in six different winter barley varieties over a statistically significant period of three years by linking agro-climatic conditions with metabolite concentrations in chosen samples. The results showed that temperatures and precipitation levels varied during the observed timeframe and that the multi-toxin concentrations followed the trend of changing climatic conditions depending on the variety. All quantified (fungal) metabolites showed significant variations throughout the years and, for some (tryptophol and the cyclic dipeptides cyclo(L-Pro-L-Tyr) and cyclo(L-Pro-L-Val)), an unexpected, but clear connection can be made with temperature changes and precipitation levels during the growing season.

Sub-Saharan Africa total diet study in Benin, Cameroon, Mali and Nigeria: Pesticides occurrence in foods

In the framework of the first regional Total Diet Study in Sub-Saharan Africa, 3696 foodstuffs, commonly consumed in Benin, Cameroon, Mali and Nigeria were purchased, prepared as consumed and pooled into 308 composite samples. Those core foods were tested for up to 470 pesticides residues by liquid and gas chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. 39 pesticides were detected with 294 total occurrences, including 47.3% organophosphate pesticides and 35.7% pyrethroids. More specifically, 6 substances represented 75.5% of all 3 organophosphates and 3 pyrethroids: chlorpyrifos (22.4%) cypermethrin (18.0%) dichlorvos (13.6%), lambda cyhalothrin (8.2%), permethrin (7.5%) and profenofos (5.8%). One pesticide or more was detected in 45.8% of samples. Strikingly, several pesticides were quantified in 2 composite samples of smoked fish from Mali: chlorpyrifos (5236-18 084 μg/kg), profenofos (30-182 μg/kg), cypermethrin (22-250 μg/kg), cyfluthrin (16-117 μg/kg), lambda cyhalothrin (9-17 μg/kg) and permethrin (3-6 μg/kg).

The Germ Fraction Inhibits Iron Bioavailability of Maize: Identification of an Approach to Enhance Maize Nutritional Quality via Processing and Breeding

Improving the nutritional quality of Fe in maize (Zea mays) represents a biofortification strategy to alleviate iron deficiency anemia. Therefore, the present study measured iron content and bioavailability via an established bioassay to characterize Fe quality in parts of the maize kernel. Comparisons of six different varieties of maize demonstrated that the germ fraction is a strong inhibitory component of Fe bioavailability. The germ fraction can contain 27-54% of the total kernel Fe, which is poorly available. In the absence of the germ, Fe in the non-germ components can be highly bioavailable. More specifically, increasing Fe concentration in the non-germ fraction resulted in more bioavailable Fe. Comparison of wet-milled fractions of a commercial maize variety and degerminated corn meal products also demonstrated the inhibitory effect of the germ fraction on Fe bioavailability. When compared to beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) containing approximately five times the concentration of Fe, degerminated maize provided more absorbable Fe, indicating substantially higher fractional bioavailability. Overall, the results indicate that degerminated maize may be a better source of Fe than whole maize and some other crops. Increased non-germ Fe density with a weaker inhibitory effect of the germ fraction are desirable qualities to identify and breed for in maize.