1
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Yang J, Sun W, Sun M, Cui Y, Wang L. Current Research Status of Azaspiracids. Mar Drugs 2024; 22:79. [PMID: 38393050 PMCID: PMC10890026 DOI: 10.3390/md22020079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2023] [Revised: 01/31/2024] [Accepted: 02/02/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
The presence and impact of toxins have been detected in various regions worldwide ever since the discovery of azaspiracids (AZAs) in 1995. These toxins have had detrimental effects on marine resource utilization, marine environmental protection, and fishery production. Over the course of more than two decades of research and development, scientists from all over the world have conducted comprehensive studies on the in vivo metabolism, in vitro synthesis methods, pathogenic mechanisms, and toxicology of these toxins. This paper aims to provide a systematic introduction to the discovery, distribution, pathogenic mechanism, in vivo biosynthesis, and in vitro artificial synthesis of AZA toxins. Additionally, it will summarize various detection methods employed over the past 20 years, along with their advantages and disadvantages. This effort will contribute to the future development of rapid detection technologies and the invention of detection devices for AZAs in marine environmental samples.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Lianghua Wang
- Basic Medical College, Naval Medical University, Shanghai 200433, China; (J.Y.); (W.S.); (M.S.); (Y.C.)
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2
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Casado N, Berenguer CV, Câmara JS, Pereira JAM. What Are We Eating? Surveying the Presence of Toxic Molecules in the Food Supply Chain Using Chromatographic Approaches. Molecules 2024; 29:579. [PMID: 38338324 PMCID: PMC10856495 DOI: 10.3390/molecules29030579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2023] [Revised: 01/17/2024] [Accepted: 01/23/2024] [Indexed: 02/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Consumers in developed and Western European countries are becoming more aware of the impact of food on their health, and they demand clear, transparent, and reliable information from the food industry about the products they consume. They recognise that food safety risks are often due to the unexpected presence of contaminants throughout the food supply chain. Among these, mycotoxins produced by food-infecting fungi, endogenous toxins from certain plants and organisms, pesticides, and other drugs used excessively during farming and food production, which lead to their contamination and accumulation in foodstuffs, are the main causes of concern. In this context, the goals of this review are to provide a comprehensive overview of the presence of toxic molecules reported in foodstuffs since 2020 through the Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (RASFF) portal and use chromatography to address this challenge. Overall, natural toxins, environmental pollutants, and food-processing contaminants are the most frequently reported toxic molecules, and liquid chromatography and gas chromatography are the most reliable approaches for their control. However, faster, simpler, and more powerful analytical procedures are necessary to cope with the growing pressures on the food chain supply.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Casado
- Departamento de Tecnología Química y Ambiental, Escuela Superior de Ciencias Experimentales y Tecnología, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Móstoles, 28933 Madrid, Spain
| | - Cristina V. Berenguer
- CQM—Centro de Química da Madeira, Universidade da Madeira, 9020-105 Funchal, Portugal; (C.V.B.); (J.S.C.)
| | - José S. Câmara
- CQM—Centro de Química da Madeira, Universidade da Madeira, 9020-105 Funchal, Portugal; (C.V.B.); (J.S.C.)
- Departamento de Química, Faculdade de Ciências Exatas e da Engenharia, Universidade da Madeira, 9020-105 Funchal, Portugal
| | - Jorge A. M. Pereira
- CQM—Centro de Química da Madeira, Universidade da Madeira, 9020-105 Funchal, Portugal; (C.V.B.); (J.S.C.)
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3
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Rossignoli AE, Ben-Gigirey B, Cid M, Mariño C, Martín H, Garrido S, Rodríguez F, Blanco J. Lipophilic Shellfish Poisoning Toxins in Marine Invertebrates from the Galician Coast. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:631. [PMID: 37999494 PMCID: PMC10675701 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15110631] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2023] [Revised: 10/11/2023] [Accepted: 10/25/2023] [Indexed: 11/25/2023] Open
Abstract
For the purpose of assessing human health exposure, it is necessary to characterize the toxins present in a given area and their potential impact on commercial species. The goal of this research study was: (1) to screen the prevalence and concentrations of lipophilic toxins in nine groups of marine invertebrates in the northwest Iberian Peninsula; (2) to evaluate the validity of wild mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) as sentinel organisms for the toxicity in non-bivalve invertebrates from the same area. The screening of multiple lipophilic toxins in 1150 samples has allowed reporting for the first time the presence of 13-desmethyl spirolide C, pinnatoxin G, okadaic acid, and dinophysistoxins 2 in a variety of non-traditional vectors. In general, these two emerging toxins showed the highest prevalence (12.5-75%) in most of the groups studied. Maximum levels for 13-desmethyl spirolide C and pinnatoxin G were found in the bivalves Magallana gigas (21 µg kg-1) and Tellina donacina (63 µg kg-1), respectively. However, mean concentrations for the bivalve group were shallow (2-6 µg kg-1). Okadaic acid and dinophysistoxin 2 with lower prevalence (1.6-44.4%) showed, on the contrary, very high concentration values in specific species of crustaceans and polychaetes (334 and 235 µg kg--1, respectively), to which special attention should be paid. Statistical data analyses showed that mussels could be considered good biological indicators for the toxicities of certain groups in a particular area, with correlations between 0.710 (for echinoderms) and 0.838 (for crustaceans). Polychaetes could be an exception, but further extensive surveys would be needed to draw definitive conclusions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Araceli E. Rossignoli
- Centro de Investigacións Mariñas (CIMA), Xunta de Galicia, Pedras de Corón s/n, 36620 Vilanova de Arousa, Spain (J.B.)
- Xefatura Territorial de Vigo, Consellería do Mar, Xunta de Galicia, Concepción Areal nº8, 4, 36201 Vigo, Spain
| | - Begoña Ben-Gigirey
- European Union Reference Laboratory for Monitoring of Marine Biotoxins, Citexvi, Fonte das Abelleiras 4, 36310 Vigo, Spain; (B.B.-G.); (M.C.); (F.R.)
| | - Mónica Cid
- European Union Reference Laboratory for Monitoring of Marine Biotoxins, Citexvi, Fonte das Abelleiras 4, 36310 Vigo, Spain; (B.B.-G.); (M.C.); (F.R.)
| | - Carmen Mariño
- Centro de Investigacións Mariñas (CIMA), Xunta de Galicia, Pedras de Corón s/n, 36620 Vilanova de Arousa, Spain (J.B.)
| | - Helena Martín
- Centro de Investigacións Mariñas (CIMA), Xunta de Galicia, Pedras de Corón s/n, 36620 Vilanova de Arousa, Spain (J.B.)
| | - Soledad Garrido
- Centro Nacional Instituto Español de Oceanografía (IEO-CSIC), Centro Oceanográfico de Vigo, Subida a Radio Faro 50, 36390 Vigo, Spain; (S.G.)
| | - Francisco Rodríguez
- European Union Reference Laboratory for Monitoring of Marine Biotoxins, Citexvi, Fonte das Abelleiras 4, 36310 Vigo, Spain; (B.B.-G.); (M.C.); (F.R.)
- Centro Nacional Instituto Español de Oceanografía (IEO-CSIC), Centro Oceanográfico de Vigo, Subida a Radio Faro 50, 36390 Vigo, Spain; (S.G.)
| | - Juan Blanco
- Centro de Investigacións Mariñas (CIMA), Xunta de Galicia, Pedras de Corón s/n, 36620 Vilanova de Arousa, Spain (J.B.)
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4
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Hort V, Bastardo-Fernández I, Nicolas M. Exploration of Vulcanodinium rugosum Toxins and their Metabolism Products in Mussels from the Ingril Lagoon Hotspot in France. Mar Drugs 2023; 21:429. [PMID: 37623710 PMCID: PMC10455521 DOI: 10.3390/md21080429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2023] [Revised: 07/21/2023] [Accepted: 07/26/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Over the year 2018, we assessed toxin contamination of shellfish collected on a monthly basis in Ingril Lagoon, France, a site known as a hotspot for Vulcanodinium rugosum growth. This short time-series study gave an overview of the presence and seasonal variability of pinnatoxins, pteriatoxins, portimines and kabirimine, all associated with V. rugosum, in shellfish. Suspect screening and targeted analysis approaches were implemented by means of liquid chromatography coupled to both low- and high-resolution mass spectrometry. We detected pinnatoxin-A and pinnatoxin-G throughout the year, with maximum levels for each one observed in June (6.7 µg/kg for pinnatoxin-A; 467.5 µg/kg for pinnatoxin-G), whereas portimine-A was detected between May and September (maximum level = 75.6 µg/kg). One of the main findings was the identification of a series of fatty acid esters of pinnatoxin-G (n = 13) although the levels detected were low. The profile was dominated by the palmitic acid conjugation of pinnatoxin-G. The other 12 fatty acid esters had not been reported in European shellfish to date. In addition, after thorough investigations, two compounds were detected, with one being probably identified as portimine-B, and the other one putatively attributed to pteriatoxins. If available, reference materials would have ensured full identification. Monitoring of these V. rugosum emerging toxins and their biotransformation products will contribute towards filling the data gaps pointed out in risk assessments and in particular the need for more contamination data for shellfish.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincent Hort
- Laboratory for Food Safety, Pesticides and Marine Biotoxins Unit, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety (Anses), Paris-Est University, 14 Rue Pierre et Marie Curie, F-94701 Maisons-Alfort, France; (I.B.-F.); (M.N.)
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Kamali N, Abbas F, Lehane M, Griew M, Furey A. A Review of In Situ Methods-Solid Phase Adsorption Toxin Tracking (SPATT) and Polar Organic Chemical Integrative Sampler (POCIS) for the Collection and Concentration of Marine Biotoxins and Pharmaceuticals in Environmental Waters. Molecules 2022; 27:7898. [PMID: 36431996 PMCID: PMC9698218 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27227898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2022] [Revised: 09/14/2022] [Accepted: 09/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Solid Phase Adsorption Toxin Tracking (SPATT) and Polar Organic Chemical Integrative Sampler (POCIS) are in situ methods that have been applied to pre-concentrate a range of marine toxins, pesticides and pharmaceutical compounds that occur at low levels in marine and environmental waters. Recent research has identified the widespread distribution of biotoxins and pharmaceuticals in environmental waters (marine, brackish and freshwater) highlighting the need for the development of effective techniques to generate accurate quantitative water system profiles. In this manuscript, we reviewed in situ methods known as Solid Phase Adsorption Toxin Tracking (SPATT) and Polar Organic Chemical Integrative Sampler (POCIS) for the collection and concentration of marine biotoxins, freshwater cyanotoxins and pharmaceuticals in environmental waters since the 1980s to present. Twelve different adsorption substrates in SPATT and 18 different sorbents in POCIS were reviewed for their ability to absorb a range of lipophilic and hydrophilic marine biotoxins, pharmaceuticals, pesticides, antibiotics and microcystins in marine water, freshwater and wastewater. This review suggests the gaps in reported studies, outlines future research possibilities and guides researchers who wish to work on water contaminates using Solid Phase Adsorption Toxin Tracking (SPATT) and Polar Organic Chemical Integrative Sampler (POCIS) technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naghmeh Kamali
- Mass Spectrometry Group, Department Physical Sciences, Munster Technological University (MTU), Rossa Avenue, Bishopstown, T12 P928 Cork, Ireland
- HALPIN Centre for Research & Innovation, National Maritime College of Ireland (NMCI), Munster Technological University (MTU), P43 XV65 Ringaskiddy, Ireland
| | - Feras Abbas
- Mass Spectrometry Group, Department Physical Sciences, Munster Technological University (MTU), Rossa Avenue, Bishopstown, T12 P928 Cork, Ireland
- CREATE (Centre for Research in Advanced Therapeutic Engineering) and BioExplore, Munster Technological University (MTU), Rossa Avenue, Bishopstown, T12 P928 Cork, Ireland
| | - Mary Lehane
- Mass Spectrometry Group, Department Physical Sciences, Munster Technological University (MTU), Rossa Avenue, Bishopstown, T12 P928 Cork, Ireland
- CREATE (Centre for Research in Advanced Therapeutic Engineering) and BioExplore, Munster Technological University (MTU), Rossa Avenue, Bishopstown, T12 P928 Cork, Ireland
| | - Michael Griew
- HALPIN Centre for Research & Innovation, National Maritime College of Ireland (NMCI), Munster Technological University (MTU), P43 XV65 Ringaskiddy, Ireland
| | - Ambrose Furey
- Mass Spectrometry Group, Department Physical Sciences, Munster Technological University (MTU), Rossa Avenue, Bishopstown, T12 P928 Cork, Ireland
- CREATE (Centre for Research in Advanced Therapeutic Engineering) and BioExplore, Munster Technological University (MTU), Rossa Avenue, Bishopstown, T12 P928 Cork, Ireland
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Goya AB, Baqer D, Alexander RP, Stubbs P, Dean K, Lewis AM, Coates L, Maskrey BH, Turner AD. Marine Biotoxins in Whole and Processed Scallops from the Argentine Sea. Mar Drugs 2022; 20:634. [PMID: 36286458 PMCID: PMC9604692 DOI: 10.3390/md20100634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2022] [Revised: 10/03/2022] [Accepted: 10/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Harmful algal blooms are an increasing worldwide threat to the seafood industry and human health as a consequence of the natural production of biotoxins that can accumulate in shellfish. In the Argentine Sea, this has been identified as an issue for the offshore fisheries of Patagonian scallops (Zygochlamys patagonica), leading to potentially harmful effects on consumers. Here we assess spatial and temporal patterns in marine biotoxin concentrations in Patagonian scallops harvested in Argentinian waters between 2012-2017, based on analyses for paralytic shellfish toxins, lipophilic toxins, and amnesic shellfish toxins. There was no evidence for concentrations of lipophilic or amnesic toxins above regulatory acceptance thresholds, with trace concentrations of pectenotoxin 2, azaspiracid 2 and okadaic acid group toxins confirmed. Conversely, paralytic shellfish toxins were quantified in some scallops. Gonyautoxins 1 and 2 dominated the unusual toxin profiles (91%) in terms of saxitoxin equivalents with maximum concentrations reaching 3985 µg STX eq/kg and with changes in profiles linked in part to seasonal changes. Total toxin concentrations were compared between samples of the adductor muscle and whole tissue, with results showing the absence of toxins in the adductor muscle confirming toxin accumulation in the digestive tracts of the scallops and the absence of a human health threat following the processing of scallop adductor meat. These findings highlight that paralytic shellfish toxins with an unusual toxin profile can occur in relatively high concentrations in whole Patagonian scallops in specific regions and during particular time periods, also showing that the processing of scallops on board factory ships to obtain frozen adductor muscle is an effective management process that minimizes the risk of poisonings from final products destined for human consumption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandra B. Goya
- Marine Biotoxin Department, Mar del Plata Regional Laboratory, National Service for Agri-food Health and Quality (Senasa), AvisoDorrego y Víctimas del ‘46, Puerto, Mar del Plata B7600, Buenos Aires Province, Argentina
| | - Danial Baqer
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, The Nothe, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Surrey, Stag Hill, Guildford GU2 7XH, UK
| | - Ryan P. Alexander
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, The Nothe, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK
| | - Patrycja Stubbs
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, The Nothe, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK
| | - Karl Dean
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, The Nothe, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK
| | - Adam M. Lewis
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, The Nothe, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK
| | - Lewis Coates
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, The Nothe, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK
| | - Benjamin H. Maskrey
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, The Nothe, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK
| | - Andrew D. Turner
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, The Nothe, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK
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Panda D, Dash BP, Manickam S, Boczkaj G. Recent advancements in LC-MS based analysis of biotoxins: Present and future challenges. MASS SPECTROMETRY REVIEWS 2022; 41:766-803. [PMID: 33624883 DOI: 10.1002/mas.21689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2020] [Revised: 02/03/2021] [Accepted: 02/05/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
There has been a rising concern regarding the harmful impact of biotoxins, source of origin, and the determination of the specific type of toxin. With numerous reports on their extensive spread, biotoxins pose a critical challenge to figure out their parent groups, metabolites, and concentration. In that aspect, liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) based analysis paves the way for its accurate identification and quantification. The biotoxins are ideally categorized as phytotoxins, mycotoxins, shellfish-toxins, ciguatoxins, cyanotoxins, and bacterial toxins such as tetrodotoxins. Considering the diverse nature of biotoxins, both low-resolution mass spectrometry (LRMS) and high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) methods have been implemented for their detection. The sample preparation strategy for complex matrix usually includes "QuEChERS" extraction or solid-phase extraction coupled with homogenization and centrifugation. For targeted analysis of biotoxins, the LRMS consisting of a tandem mass spectrometer operating in multiple reaction monitoring mode has been widely implemented. With the help of the reference standard, most of the toxins were accurately quantified. At the same time, the suspect screening and nontarget screening approach are facilitated by the HRMS platforms during the absence of reference standards. Significant progress has also been made in sampling device employment, utilizing novel sample preparation strategies, synthesizing toxin standards, employing hybrid MS platforms, and the associated data interpretation. This critical review attempts to elucidate the progress in LC-MS based analysis in the determination of biotoxins while pointing out major challenges and suggestions for future development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Debabrata Panda
- Center of Excellence (CoE), Fakir Mohan University, Nuapadhi, Odisha, India
| | - Bisnu P Dash
- Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Fakir Mohan University, Nuapadhi, Odisha, India
| | - Sivakumar Manickam
- Petroleum and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Brunei, Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei Darussalam
| | - Grzegorz Boczkaj
- Department of Process Engineering and Chemical Technology, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdansk University of Technology, Gdańsk, Poland
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8
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Louzao MC, Vilariño N, Vale C, Costas C, Cao A, Raposo-Garcia S, Vieytes MR, Botana LM. Current Trends and New Challenges in Marine Phycotoxins. Mar Drugs 2022; 20:md20030198. [PMID: 35323497 PMCID: PMC8950113 DOI: 10.3390/md20030198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2022] [Revised: 03/04/2022] [Accepted: 03/05/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Marine phycotoxins are a multiplicity of bioactive compounds which are produced by microalgae and bioaccumulate in the marine food web. Phycotoxins affect the ecosystem, pose a threat to human health, and have important economic effects on aquaculture and tourism worldwide. However, human health and food safety have been the primary concerns when considering the impacts of phycotoxins. Phycotoxins toxicity information, often used to set regulatory limits for these toxins in shellfish, lacks traceability of toxicity values highlighting the need for predefined toxicological criteria. Toxicity data together with adequate detection methods for monitoring procedures are crucial to protect human health. However, despite technological advances, there are still methodological uncertainties and high demand for universal phycotoxin detectors. This review focuses on these topics, including uncertainties of climate change, providing an overview of the current information as well as future perspectives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Carmen Louzao
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain; (N.V.); (C.V.); (C.C.); (A.C.); (S.R.-G.)
- Correspondence: (M.C.L.); (L.M.B.)
| | - Natalia Vilariño
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain; (N.V.); (C.V.); (C.C.); (A.C.); (S.R.-G.)
| | - Carmen Vale
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain; (N.V.); (C.V.); (C.C.); (A.C.); (S.R.-G.)
| | - Celia Costas
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain; (N.V.); (C.V.); (C.C.); (A.C.); (S.R.-G.)
| | - Alejandro Cao
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain; (N.V.); (C.V.); (C.C.); (A.C.); (S.R.-G.)
| | - Sandra Raposo-Garcia
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain; (N.V.); (C.V.); (C.C.); (A.C.); (S.R.-G.)
| | - Mercedes R. Vieytes
- Departamento de Fisiologia, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain;
| | - Luis M. Botana
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain; (N.V.); (C.V.); (C.C.); (A.C.); (S.R.-G.)
- Correspondence: (M.C.L.); (L.M.B.)
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9
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Otero P, Silva M. Emerging Marine Biotoxins in European Waters: Potential Risks and Analytical Challenges. Mar Drugs 2022; 20:199. [PMID: 35323498 PMCID: PMC8955394 DOI: 10.3390/md20030199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2022] [Revised: 02/15/2022] [Accepted: 03/05/2022] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Harmful algal blooms pose a challenge regarding food safety due to their erratic nature and forming circumstances which are yet to be disclosed. The best strategy to protect human consumers is through legislation and monitoring strategies. Global warming and anthropological intervention aided the migration and establishment of emerging toxin producers into Europe's temperate waters, creating a new threat to human public health. The lack of information, standards, and reference materials delay effective solutions, being a matter of urgent resolution. In this work, the recent findings of the presence of emerging azaspiracids, spirolildes, pinnatoxins, gymnodimines, palitoxins, ciguatoxins, brevetoxins, and tetrodotoxins on European Coasts are addressed. The information concerning emerging toxins such as new matrices, locations, and toxicity assays is paramount to set the risk assessment guidelines, regulatory levels, and analytical methodology that would protect the consumers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paz Otero
- Department of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - Marisa Silva
- MARE—Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre, Faculty of Sciences, University of Lisbon, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisbon, Portugal
- Department of Plant Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Lisbon, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisbon, Portugal
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10
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Díaz PA, Álvarez G, Pizarro G, Blanco J, Reguera B. Lipophilic Toxins in Chile: History, Producers and Impacts. Mar Drugs 2022; 20:122. [PMID: 35200651 PMCID: PMC8874607 DOI: 10.3390/md20020122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2022] [Revised: 02/01/2022] [Accepted: 02/02/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
A variety of microalgal species produce lipophilic toxins (LT) that are accumulated by filter-feeding bivalves. Their negative impacts on human health and shellfish exploitation are determined by toxic potential of the local strains and toxin biotransformations by exploited bivalve species. Chile has become, in a decade, the world's major exporter of mussels (Mytilus chilensis) and scallops (Argopecten purpuratus) and has implemented toxin testing according to importing countries' demands. Species of the Dinophysis acuminata complex and Protoceratium reticulatum are the most widespread and abundant LT producers in Chile. Dominant D. acuminata strains, notwithstanding, unlike most strains in Europe rich in okadaic acid (OA), produce only pectenotoxins, with no impact on human health. Dinophysis acuta, suspected to be the main cause of diarrhetic shellfish poisoning outbreaks, is found in the two southernmost regions of Chile, and has apparently shifted poleward. Mouse bioassay (MBA) is the official method to control shellfish safety for the national market. Positive results from mouse tests to mixtures of toxins and other compounds only toxic by intraperitoneal injection, including already deregulated toxins (PTXs), force unnecessary harvesting bans, and hinder progress in the identification of emerging toxins. Here, 50 years of LST events in Chile, and current knowledge of their sources, accumulation and effects, are reviewed. Improvements of monitoring practices are suggested, and strategies to face new challenges and answer the main questions are proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricio A. Díaz
- Centro i~mar (CeBiB), Universidad de Los Lagos, Casilla 557, Puerto Montt 5480000, Chile;
| | - Gonzalo Álvarez
- Departamento de Acuicultura, Facultad de Ciencias del Mar, Universidad Católica del Norte, Larrondo 1281, Coquimbo 1781421, Chile;
- Centro de Investigación y Desarrollo Tecnológico en Algas (CIDTA), Facultad de Ciencias del Mar, Universidad Católica del Norte, Larrondo 1281, Coquimbo 17811421, Chile
| | - Gemita Pizarro
- Centro de Estudios de Algas Nocivas (CREAN), Instituto de Fomento Pesquero (IFOP), Enrique Abello 0552, Punta Arenas 6200000, Chile;
| | - Juan Blanco
- Centro de Investigacións Mariñas (Xunta de Galicia), Apto. 13, 36620 Vilanova de Arousa, Pontevedra, Spain;
| | - Beatriz Reguera
- Centro Oceanográfico de Vigo (IEO, CSIC), Subida a Radio Faro 50, 36390 Vigo, Pontevedra, Spain
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11
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Rossignoli AE, Mariño C, Martín H, Blanco J. Development of a Fast Liquid Chromatography Coupled to Mass Spectrometry Method (LC-MS/MS) to Determine Fourteen Lipophilic Shellfish Toxins Based on Fused-Core Technology: In-House Validation. Mar Drugs 2021; 19:md19110603. [PMID: 34822474 PMCID: PMC8622501 DOI: 10.3390/md19110603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2021] [Revised: 10/20/2021] [Accepted: 10/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Prevalence and incidence of the marine toxins (paralytic, amnesic, and lipophilic toxins) including the so-called emerging toxins (these are, gymnodimines, pinnatoxins, or spirolides among others) have increased in recent years all over the world. Climate change, which is affecting the distribution of their producing phytoplankton species, is probably one of the main causes. Early detection of the toxins present in a particular area, and linking the toxins to their causative phytoplankton species are key tools to minimize the risk they pose for human consumers. The development of both types of studies requires fast and highly sensitive analytical methods. In the present work, we have developed a highly sensitive liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry methodology (LC-MS/MS), using a column with fused-core particle technology, for the determination of fourteen lipophilic toxins in a single run of 3.6 min. The performance of the method was evaluated for specificity, linearity, precision (repeatability and reproducibility) and accuracy by analysing spiked and naturally contaminated samples. The in-house validation was successful, and the limit of detection (LOD) and quantification (LOQ) for all the toxins were far below their regulatory action limits. The method is suitable to be considered in monitoring systems of bivalves for food control.
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12
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Servent D, Malgorn C, Bernes M, Gil S, Simasotchi C, Hérard AS, Delzescaux T, Thai R, Barbe P, Keck M, Beau F, Zakarian A, Dive V, Molgó J. First evidence that emerging pinnatoxin-G, a contaminant of shellfish, reaches the brain and crosses the placental barrier. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 790:148125. [PMID: 34380275 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.148125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2020] [Revised: 04/27/2021] [Accepted: 05/26/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Massive proliferation of some toxic marine dinoflagellates is responsible for the occurrence of harmful algal blooms and the contamination of fish and shellfish worldwide. Pinnatoxins (PnTx) (A-H) comprise an emerging phycotoxin family belonging to the cyclic imine toxin group. Interest has been focused on these lipophilic, fast-acting and highly potent toxins because they are widely found in contaminated shellfish, and can represent a risk for seafood consumers. PnTx display a potent antagonist effect on nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChR), and in this study we assessed in vivo the ability of PnTx-G to cross physiological barriers to reach its molecular target. Radiolabeled [3H]-PnTx-G synthesized with good radiochemical purity and yield retained the high affinity of the natural toxin. Oral gavage or intravenous administration to adult rats and digital autoradiographic analyses revealed the biodistribution and toxicokinetics of [3H]-PnTx-G, which is rapidly cleared from blood, and accumulates in the liver and small intestine. The labeling of peripheral and brain adult/embryo rat tissues highlights its ability to cross the intestinal, blood-brain and placental barriers. High-resolution 3D-imaging and in vitro competition studies on rat embryo sections revealed the specificity of [3H]-PnTx-G binding and its selectivity for muscle and neuronal nAChR subtypes (such as α7 subtype). The use of a human perfused cotyledon model and mass spectrometry analyses disclosed that PnTx-G crosses the human placental barrier. The increasing worldwide occurrence of both the dinoflagellate Vulcanodinium rugosum and PnTx-contaminated shellfish, due to climate warming, raises concerns about the potential adverse impact that exposure to pinnatoxins may have for human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Denis Servent
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, INRAE, Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), SIMoS, ERL CNRS 9004, F-91191 Gif sur Yvette, France.
| | - Carole Malgorn
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, INRAE, Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), SIMoS, ERL CNRS 9004, F-91191 Gif sur Yvette, France
| | - Mylène Bernes
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, INRAE, Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), SIMoS, ERL CNRS 9004, F-91191 Gif sur Yvette, France
| | - Sophie Gil
- Université de Paris, UMR-S1139, Faculté de Pharmacie de Paris, France
| | | | - Anne-Sophie Hérard
- Université Paris-Saclay, UMR9199, CNRS, CEA, MIRCen, Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
| | - Thierry Delzescaux
- Université Paris-Saclay, UMR9199, CNRS, CEA, MIRCen, Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
| | - Robert Thai
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, INRAE, Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), SIMoS, ERL CNRS 9004, F-91191 Gif sur Yvette, France
| | - Peggy Barbe
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, INRAE, Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), SIMoS, ERL CNRS 9004, F-91191 Gif sur Yvette, France
| | - Mathilde Keck
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, INRAE, Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), SIMoS, ERL CNRS 9004, F-91191 Gif sur Yvette, France
| | - Fabrice Beau
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, INRAE, Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), SIMoS, ERL CNRS 9004, F-91191 Gif sur Yvette, France
| | - Armen Zakarian
- University of California, Santa Barbara, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, CA 93106-9510, USA
| | - Vincent Dive
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, INRAE, Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), SIMoS, ERL CNRS 9004, F-91191 Gif sur Yvette, France
| | - Jordi Molgó
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, INRAE, Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), SIMoS, ERL CNRS 9004, F-91191 Gif sur Yvette, France.
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13
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O'Neill A, Morrell N, Turner AD, Maskrey BH. Method performance verification for the combined detection and quantitation of the marine neurotoxins cyclic imines and brevetoxin shellfish metabolites in mussels (Mytilus edulis) and oysters (Crassostrea gigas) by UHPLC-MS/MS. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2021; 1179:122864. [PMID: 34343946 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2021.122864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2021] [Revised: 06/17/2021] [Accepted: 07/16/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
A single laboratory method performance verification is reported for a rapid sensitive UHPLC-MS/MS method for the quantification of eight cyclic imine and two brevetoxin analogues in two bivalve shellfish matrices: mussel (Mytilus edulis) and Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas). Targeted cyclic imine analogues were from the spirolide, gymnodimine and pinnatoxin groups, namely 20-Me-SPX-C, 13-desMe-SPX-C, 13,19-didesMe-SPX-C, GYM-A, 12-Me-GYM, PnTx-E, PnTx-F and PnTx-G. Brevetoxin analogues consisted of the shellfish metabolites BTX-B5 and S-desoxy-BTX-B2. A rapid dispersive extraction was used as well as a fast six-minute UHPLC-MS/MS analysis. Mobile phase prepared using ammonium fluoride and methanol was optimised for both chromatographic separation and MS/MS response to suit all analytes. Method performance verification checks for both matrices were carried out. Matrix influence was acceptable for the majority of analogues with the MS response for all analogues being linear across an appropriate range of concentrations. In terms of limits of detection and quantitation the method was shown to be highly sensitive when compared with other methods. Acceptable recoveries were found with most analogues, with laboratory precision in terms of intra- and inter-batch precision deemed appropriate. The method was applied to environmental shellfish samples with results showing low concentrations of cyclic imines to be present. The method is fast and highly sensitive for the detection and quantification of all targeted analogues, in both mussel and oyster matrices. Consequently, the method has been shown to provide a useful tool for simultaneous monitoring for the presence or future emergence of these two toxin groups in shellfish.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison O'Neill
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset, DT4 8UB, United Kingdom
| | - Nadine Morrell
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset, DT4 8UB, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew D Turner
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset, DT4 8UB, United Kingdom
| | - Benjamin H Maskrey
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset, DT4 8UB, United Kingdom.
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14
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Silva M, Seijas P, Otero P. Exploitation of Marine Molecules to Manage Alzheimer's Disease. Mar Drugs 2021; 19:md19070373. [PMID: 34203244 PMCID: PMC8307759 DOI: 10.3390/md19070373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2021] [Revised: 06/17/2021] [Accepted: 06/23/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Neurodegenerative diseases are sociosanitary challenges of today, as a result of increased average life expectancy, with Alzheimer’s disease being one of the most prevalent. This pathology is characterized by brain impairment linked to a neurodegenerative process culminating in cognitive decline and behavioral disorders. Though the etiology of this pathology is still unknown, it is usually associated with the appearance of senile plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. The most used prophylaxis relies on anticholinesterase drugs and NMDA receptor antagonists, whose main action is to relieve symptoms and not to treat or prevent the disease. Currently, the scientific community is gathering efforts to disclose new natural compounds effective against Alzheimer’s disease and other neurodegenerative pathologies. Marine natural products have been shown to be promising candidates, and some have been proven to exert a high neuroprotection effect, constituting a large reservoir of potential drugs and nutraceutical agents. The present article attempts to describe the processes of extraction and isolation of bioactive compounds derived from sponges, algae, marine bacteria, invertebrates, crustaceans, and tunicates as drug candidates against AD, with a focus on the success of pharmacological activity in the process of finding new and effective drug compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marisa Silva
- MARE—Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre, Faculty of Sciences, University of Lisbon, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisbon, Portugal;
- Department of Plant Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Lisbon, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Paula Seijas
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain;
| | - Paz Otero
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain;
- Department of Production and Characterization of Novel Foods, Institute of Food Science Research (CIAL), Campus of International Excellence UAM+CSIC, 28049 Madrid, Spain
- Nutrition and Bromatology Group, CITACA, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, University of Vigo, Ourense Campus, 32004 Ourense, Spain
- Correspondence: or
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15
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Sakaguchi Y, Kawamura R, Nakayama E, Ako K, Kawasue S, Koga R, Yoshida H, Nohta H. Selective analysis of the okadaic acid group in shellfish samples using fluorous derivatization coupled with liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2021; 1173:122681. [PMID: 33878533 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2021.122681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2020] [Revised: 03/04/2021] [Accepted: 03/27/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Okadaic acid (OA) group are diarrheal shellfish poison that accumulates in the midgut glands of shellfish. It is difficult to remove these poisons by normal cooking because they are thermally stable and hydrophobicity. Therefore, in order to prevent foodborne disease due to shellfish poison, analysis by liquid chromatography (LC)-tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) before shipment is necessary. Herein the selective analytical method for OA group in shellfish sample using fluorous derivatization coupled with LC-MS/MS was developed. OA group were derivatized with the fluorous alkylamine reagent by condensing agent, and the obtained derivatives were separated with fluorous LC column (Fluofix-II 120E, 250 × 2.0 mm i.d., 5 μm, Fujifilm Wako Pure Chemical). The derivatized OA group were selective retained by fluorous LC column and accurate analysis was enabled. The present method was applied to the analysis of OA and dinophysistoxin-1 (DTX-1) in scallop midgut gland which is the certified reference material provided by national metrology institute of Japan. As a result of analysis using the present method with DTX-2 as the internal standard, the quantitative value were in agreement with the certified value.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yohei Sakaguchi
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Fukuoka University, 8-19-1 Nanakuma, Johnan, Fukuoka 814-0180, Japan
| | - Rina Kawamura
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Fukuoka University, 8-19-1 Nanakuma, Johnan, Fukuoka 814-0180, Japan
| | - Erina Nakayama
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Fukuoka University, 8-19-1 Nanakuma, Johnan, Fukuoka 814-0180, Japan
| | - Kenta Ako
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Fukuoka University, 8-19-1 Nanakuma, Johnan, Fukuoka 814-0180, Japan
| | - Shimba Kawasue
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Fukuoka University, 8-19-1 Nanakuma, Johnan, Fukuoka 814-0180, Japan
| | - Reiko Koga
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Fukuoka University, 8-19-1 Nanakuma, Johnan, Fukuoka 814-0180, Japan
| | - Hideyuki Yoshida
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Fukuoka University, 8-19-1 Nanakuma, Johnan, Fukuoka 814-0180, Japan
| | - Hitoshi Nohta
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Fukuoka University, 8-19-1 Nanakuma, Johnan, Fukuoka 814-0180, Japan.
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16
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Bresnan E, Arévalo F, Belin C, Branco MAC, Cembella AD, Clarke D, Correa J, Davidson K, Dhanji-Rapkova M, Lozano RF, Fernández-Tejedor M, Guðfinnsson H, Carbonell DJ, Laza-Martinez A, Lemoine M, Lewis AM, Menéndez LM, Maskrey BH, McKinney A, Pazos Y, Revilla M, Siano R, Silva A, Swan S, Turner AD, Schweibold L, Provoost P, Enevoldsen H. Diversity and regional distribution of harmful algal events along the Atlantic margin of Europe. HARMFUL ALGAE 2021; 102:101976. [PMID: 33875184 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2021.101976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2020] [Revised: 01/10/2021] [Accepted: 01/13/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The IOC-ICES-PICES Harmful Algal Event Database (HAEDAT) was used to describe the diversity and spatiotemporal distribution of harmful algal events along the Atlantic margin of Europe from 1987 - 2018. The majority of events recorded are caused by Diarrhetic Shellfish Toxins (DSTs). These events are recorded annually over a wide geographic area from southern Spain to northern Scotland and Iceland, and are responsible for annual closures of many shellfish harvesting areas. The dominant causative dinoflagellates, members of the morphospecies 'Dinophysis acuminata complex' and D. acuta, are common in the waters of the majority of countries affected. There are regional differences in the causative species associated with PST events; the coasts of Spain and Portugal with the dinoflagellates Alexandrium minutum and Gymnodinium catenatum, north west France/south west England/south Ireland with A. minutum, and Scotland/Faroe Islands/Iceland with A. catenella. This can influence the duration and spatial scale of PST events as well as the toxicity of shellfish. The diatom Pseudo-nitzschia australis is the most widespread Domoic Acid (DA) producer, with records coming from Spain, Portugal, France, Ireland and the UK. Amnesic Shellfish Toxins (ASTs) have caused prolonged closures for the scallop fishing industry due to the slow depuration rate of DA. Amendments to EU shellfish hygiene regulations introduced between 2002 and 2005 facilitated end-product testing and sale of adductor muscle. This reduced the impact of ASTs on the scallop fishing industry and thus the number of recorded HAEDAT events. Azaspiracids (AZAs) are the most recent toxin group responsible for events to be characterised in the ICES area. Events associated with AZAs have a discrete distribution with the majority recorded along the west coast of Ireland. Ciguatera Poisoning (CP) has been an emerging issue in the Canary Islands and Madeira since 2004. The majority of aquaculture and wild fish mortality events are associated with blooms of the dinoflagellate Karenia mikimotoi and raphidophyte Heterosigma akashiwo. Such fish killing events occur infrequently yet can cause significant mortalities. Interannual variability was observed in the annual number of HAEDAT areas with events associated with individual shellfish toxin groups. HABs represent a continued risk for the aquaculture industry along the Atlantic margin of Europe and should be accounted for when considering expansion of the industry or operational shifts to offshore areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eileen Bresnan
- Marine Scotland Marine Laboratory, Aberdeen, AB11 9DB, U.K..
| | - Fabiola Arévalo
- Intecmar, Peirao de Vilaxoán, s/n, 36611 Vilagarcía de Arousa, Spain
| | - Catherine Belin
- Institut français de recherche pour l'exploitation de la mer (IFREMER) VIGIES F-44311, Nantes, France
| | - Maria A C Branco
- Instituto Português do Mar e da Atmosfera (IPMA), 1749-077 Lisboa, Portugal
| | | | - Dave Clarke
- Marine Institute, Rinville, Oranmore, Galway, H91 R673, Ireland
| | - Jorge Correa
- Intecmar, Peirao de Vilaxoán, s/n, 36611 Vilagarcía de Arousa, Spain
| | - Keith Davidson
- Scottish Association for Marine Science (SAMS), Scottish Marine Institute, Oban, PA37 1QA, U.K
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Aitor Laza-Martinez
- Department of Plant Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of the Basque Country, Leioa 48940, Spain
| | - Maud Lemoine
- Institut français de recherche pour l'exploitation de la mer (IFREMER) VIGIES F-44311, Nantes, France
| | - Adam M Lewis
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science, Weymouth, DT4 8UB, U.K
| | - Luz Mamán Menéndez
- Laboratorio de Control de Calidad de los Recursos Pesqueros, Huelva, Spain
| | - Benjamin H Maskrey
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science, Weymouth, DT4 8UB, U.K
| | - April McKinney
- Agri-Food and Biosciences Institute, Belfast, BT9 5PX, U.K
| | - Yolanda Pazos
- Intecmar, Peirao de Vilaxoán, s/n, 36611 Vilagarcía de Arousa, Spain
| | - Marta Revilla
- AZTI, Marine Research Division, Basque Research and Technology Alliance (BRTA), E-20110 Pasaia, Spain
| | - Raffaele Siano
- Institut français de recherche pour l'exploitation de la mer (IFREMER), DYNECO F-29280 Plouzané, France
| | - Alexandra Silva
- Instituto Português do Mar e da Atmosfera (IPMA), 1749-077 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Sarah Swan
- Scottish Association for Marine Science (SAMS), Scottish Marine Institute, Oban, PA37 1QA, U.K
| | - Andrew D Turner
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science, Weymouth, DT4 8UB, U.K
| | | | | | - Henrik Enevoldsen
- IOC Science and Communication Centre on Harmful Algae, 2100 Copenhagen Ø, Denmark
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17
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Varriale F, Tartaglione L, Cinti S, Milandri A, Dall'Ara S, Calfapietra A, Dell'Aversano C. Development of a data dependent acquisition-based approach for the identification of unknown fast-acting toxins and their ester metabolites. Talanta 2020; 224:121842. [PMID: 33379060 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2020.121842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2020] [Revised: 10/27/2020] [Accepted: 10/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Phycotoxins in the marine food-web represent a serious threat to human health. Consumption of contaminated shellfish and/or finfish poses risk to consumer safety: several cases of toxins-related seafood poisoning have been recorded so far worldwide. Cyclic imines are emerging lipophilic toxins, which have been detected in shellfish from different European countries. Currently, they are not regulated due to the lack of toxicological comprehensive data and hence the European Food Safety Authority has required more scientific efforts before establishing a maximum permitted level in seafood. In this work, a novel data dependent liquid chromatography - high resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS) approach has been successfully applied and combined with targeted studies for an in-depth investigation of the metabolic profile of shellfish samples. The proposed analytical methodology has allowed: i) to discover a plethora of unknown fatty acid esters of gymnodimines and ii) to conceive a brand new MS-based strategy, termed as backward analysis, for discovery and identification of new analogues. In particular, the implemented analytical workflow has broadened the structural diversity of cyclic imine family through the inclusion of five new congeners, namely gymnodimine -F, -G, -H, -I and -J. In addition, gymnodimine A (376.5 μg/kg), 13-desmethyl spirolide C (11.0-29.0 μg/kg) and pinnatoxin G (3.1-7.7 μg/kg) have been detected in shellfish from different sites of the Mediterranean basin (Tunisia and Italy) and the Atlantic coast of Spain, with the confirmation of the first finding of pinnatoxin G in mussels harvested in Sardinia (Tyrrhenian Sea, Italy).
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabio Varriale
- University of Napoli Federico II, Department of Pharmacy, School of Medicine and Surgery, Via D. Montesano 49, 80131, Napoli, Italy
| | - Luciana Tartaglione
- University of Napoli Federico II, Department of Pharmacy, School of Medicine and Surgery, Via D. Montesano 49, 80131, Napoli, Italy; CoNISMa, Italian Interuniversity Consortium on Marine Sciences, Piazzale Flaminio 9, 00196, Rome, Italy.
| | - Stefano Cinti
- University of Napoli Federico II, Department of Pharmacy, School of Medicine and Surgery, Via D. Montesano 49, 80131, Napoli, Italy
| | - Anna Milandri
- Fondazione Centro Ricerche Marine, National Reference Laboratory for Marine Biotoxins, V.le A. Vespucci 2, 47042, Cesenatico (FC), Italy
| | - Sonia Dall'Ara
- Fondazione Centro Ricerche Marine, National Reference Laboratory for Marine Biotoxins, V.le A. Vespucci 2, 47042, Cesenatico (FC), Italy
| | - Anna Calfapietra
- Fondazione Centro Ricerche Marine, National Reference Laboratory for Marine Biotoxins, V.le A. Vespucci 2, 47042, Cesenatico (FC), Italy
| | - Carmela Dell'Aversano
- University of Napoli Federico II, Department of Pharmacy, School of Medicine and Surgery, Via D. Montesano 49, 80131, Napoli, Italy; CoNISMa, Italian Interuniversity Consortium on Marine Sciences, Piazzale Flaminio 9, 00196, Rome, Italy
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18
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Otero P, Vale C, Boente-Juncal A, Costas C, Louzao MC, Botana LM. Detection of Cyclic Imine Toxins in Dietary Supplements of Green Lipped Mussels ( Perna canaliculus) and in Shellfish Mytilus chilensis. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:E613. [PMID: 32987858 PMCID: PMC7601114 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12100613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2020] [Revised: 09/18/2020] [Accepted: 09/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Seafood represents a significant part of the human staple diet. In the recent years, the identification of emerging lipophilic marine toxins has increased, leading to the potential for consumers to be intoxicated by these toxins. In the present work, we investigate the presence of lipophilic marine toxins (both regulated and emerging) in commercial seafood products from non-European locations, including mussels Mytilus chilensis from Chile, clams Tawerea gayi and Metetrix lyrate from the Southeast Pacific and Vietnam, and food supplements based on mussels formulations of Perna canaliculus from New Zealand. All these products were purchased from European Union markets and they were analyzed by UPLC-MS/MS. Results showed the presence of the emerging pinnatoxin-G in mussels Mytilus chilensis at levels up to 5.2 µg/kg and azaspiracid-2 and pectenotoxin-2 in clams Tawera gayi up to 4.33 µg/kg and 10.88 µg/kg, respectively. This study confirms the presence of pinnatoxins in Chile, one of the major mussel producers worldwide. Chromatograms showed the presence of 13-desmethyl spirolide C in dietary supplements in the range of 33.2-97.9 µg/kg after an extraction with water and methanol from 0.39 g of the green lipped mussels powder. As far as we know, this constitutes the first time that an emerging cyclic imine toxin in dietary supplements is reported. Identifying new matrix, locations, and understanding emerging toxin distribution area are important for preventing the risks of spreading and contamination linked to these compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paz Otero
- Departamento de Farmacología, Farmacia y Tecnología Farmacéutica, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain; (C.V.); (A.B.-J.); (C.C.); (M.C.L.); (L.M.B.)
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19
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Aráoz R, Barnes P, Séchet V, Delepierre M, Zinn-Justin S, Molgó J, Zakarian A, Hess P, Servent D. Cyclic imine toxins survey in coastal european shellfish samples: Bioaccumulation and mode of action of 28-O-palmitoyl ester of pinnatoxin-G. first report of portimine-A bioaccumulation. HARMFUL ALGAE 2020; 98:101887. [PMID: 33129465 PMCID: PMC7657664 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2020.101887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2020] [Revised: 07/11/2020] [Accepted: 07/24/2020] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Cyclic imine toxins exhibit fast acting neurotoxicity and lethality by respiratory arrest in mice explained by their potent antagonistic activity against muscular nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. We performed a survey of gymnodimine-A, 13-desmethyl spirolide-C, 13,19-didesmethyl spirolide-C, 20-methyl spirolide-G, pinnatoxin-A, pinnatoxin-G, portimine-A and 28-O-palmitoyl ester of pinnatoxin-G in 36 shellfish samples collected in coastal areas of 8 European countries using a microplate receptor binding assay and UPLC-MS/MS for toxin identification and quantification. The major toxins found in these samples were pinnatoxin-G, 20-methyl spirolide-G, 13-desmethyl spirolide-C, gymnodimine-A and portimine-A. Traces of 13,19-didesmethyl spirolide-C, pinnatoxin-A and 28-O-palmitoyl ester of pinnatoxin-G were also detected. The rapid death of mice was correlated with higher pinnatoxin-G concentrations in mussel digestive gland extracts injected intraperitoneally. Our survey included nontoxic control samples that were found to contain moderate to trace amounts of several cyclic imine toxins. Shellfish may bioaccumulate not only cyclic imine toxins but also a large number of acyl derivatives as a product of metabolic transformation of these neurotoxins. This is the first report in which portimine-A and 28-O-palmitoyl ester of pinnatoxin-G were detected in shellfish extracts from digestive glands of mussels collected in Ingril lagoon. The bioaccumulation of portimine-A is particularly of concern because it is cytotoxic and is able to induce apotosis. The mode of action of 28-O-palmitoyl ester of pinnatoxin-G was studied by receptor binding-assay and by two-electrode voltage clamp electrophysiology. The antagonistic behavior of the acylated pinnatoxin-G towards nicotinic acetylcholine receptor of muscle type is shown here for the first time. Since cyclic imine toxins are not regulated further monitoring of these emerging toxins is needed to improve evidence gathering of their occurrence in shellfish commercialized for human consumption in Europe given their potent antagonism against muscle and neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rómulo Aráoz
- Université Paris Saclay, CEA, INRAE, Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), SIMoS, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France; CNRS, ERL9004, 91191, Gif-sur-Yvette, France.
| | - Paul Barnes
- Agri-food and Biosciences Institute, Veterinary Science Division, Stoney Road, Belfast BT4 3SD, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom
| | - Véronique Séchet
- Ifremer, Centre Atlantique, Laboratoire Phycotoxines, 44311 Nantes Cedex, France
| | - Muriel Delepierre
- Institut Pasteur, Department of Structural Biology and Chemistry CNRS, UMR3528, Paris France
| | - Sophie Zinn-Justin
- Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), CEA, CNRS, Univ Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, Gif- sur -Yvette Cedex, France
| | - Jordi Molgó
- Université Paris Saclay, CEA, INRAE, Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), SIMoS, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France; CNRS, ERL9004, 91191, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Armen Zakarian
- University California Santa Barbara, Dept Chem & Biochem, Santa Barbara, CA 93106 United States
| | - Philipp Hess
- Ifremer, Centre Atlantique, Laboratoire Phycotoxines, 44311 Nantes Cedex, France
| | - Denis Servent
- Université Paris Saclay, CEA, INRAE, Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), SIMoS, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France; CNRS, ERL9004, 91191, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
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Arnich N, Abadie E, Delcourt N, Fessard V, Fremy JM, Hort V, Lagrange E, Maignien T, Molgó J, Peyrat MB, Vernoux JP, Mattei C. Health risk assessment related to pinnatoxins in French shellfish. Toxicon 2020; 180:1-10. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2020.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2019] [Revised: 03/16/2020] [Accepted: 03/25/2020] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
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Sosa S, Pelin M, Cavion F, Hervé F, Hess P, Tubaro A. Acute Oral Toxicity of Pinnatoxin G in Mice. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12020087. [PMID: 32012834 PMCID: PMC7076786 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12020087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2019] [Revised: 01/21/2020] [Accepted: 01/23/2020] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Pinnatoxin G (PnTx-G) is a marine cyclic imine toxin produced by the dinoflagellate Vulcanodinium rugosum, frequently detected in edible shellfish from Ingril Lagoon (France). As other pinnatoxins, to date, no human poisonings ascribed to consumption of PnTx-G contaminated seafood have been reported, despite its potent antagonism at nicotinic acetylcholine receptors and its high and fast-acting toxicity after intraperitoneal or oral administration in mice. The hazard characterization of PnTx-G by oral exposure is limited to a single acute toxicity study recording lethality and clinical signs in non-fasted mice treated by gavage or through voluntary food ingestion, which showed differences in PnTx-G toxic potency. Thus, an acute toxicity study was carried out using 3 h-fasted CD-1 female mice, administered by gavage with PnTx-G (8–450 µg kg−1). At the dose of 220 µg kg−1 and above, the toxin induced a rapid onset of clinical signs (piloerection, prostration, hypothermia, abdominal breathing, paralysis of the hind limbs, and cyanosis), leading to the death of mice within 30 min. Except for moderate mucosal degeneration in the small intestine recorded at doses of 300 µg kg−1, the toxin did not induce significant morphological changes in the other main organs and tissues, or alterations in blood chemistry parameters. This acute oral toxicity study allowed to calculate an oral LD50 for PnTx-G equal to 208 μg kg−1 (95% confidence limits: 155–281 µg kg−1) and to estimate a provisional NOEL of 120 µg kg−1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvio Sosa
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, Via A. Valerio 6, 34127 Trieste, Italy; (M.P.); (F.C.); (A.T.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +39-040-558-8836
| | - Marco Pelin
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, Via A. Valerio 6, 34127 Trieste, Italy; (M.P.); (F.C.); (A.T.)
| | - Federica Cavion
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, Via A. Valerio 6, 34127 Trieste, Italy; (M.P.); (F.C.); (A.T.)
| | - Fabienne Hervé
- Ifremer, Laboratoire Phycotoxines, Centre Atlantique, 44311 Nantes CEDEX, France; (F.H.); (P.H.)
| | - Philipp Hess
- Ifremer, Laboratoire Phycotoxines, Centre Atlantique, 44311 Nantes CEDEX, France; (F.H.); (P.H.)
| | - Aurelia Tubaro
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, Via A. Valerio 6, 34127 Trieste, Italy; (M.P.); (F.C.); (A.T.)
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Analysis of Cyclic Imines in Mussels ( Mytilus galloprovincialis) from Galicia (NW Spain) by LC-MS/MS. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2019; 17:ijerph17010281. [PMID: 31906079 PMCID: PMC6981759 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17010281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2019] [Revised: 12/27/2019] [Accepted: 12/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Cyclic imines (CIs) are being considered as emerging toxins in the European Union, and a scientific opinion has been published by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) in which an assessment of the risks to human health related to their consumption has been carried out. Recommendations on the EFSA opinion include the search for data occurrence of CIs in shellfish and using confirmatory methods by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), which need to be developed and optimized. The aim of this work is the application of LC-MS/MS to the analysis of gymnodimines (GYMs), spirolides (SPXs), pinnatoxins (PnTXs), and pteriatoxins (PtTXs) in mussels from Galician Rias, northwest Spain, the main production area in Europe, and therefore a representative emplacement for their evaluation. Conditions were adjusted using commercially available certified reference standards of GYM-A, SPX-1, and PnTX-G and evaluated through quality control studies. The EU-Harmonised Standard Operating Procedure for determination of lipophilic marine biotoxins in molluscs by LC-MS/MS was followed, and the results obtained from the analysis of eighteen samples from three different locations that showed the presence of PnTXs and SPXs are presented and discussed. Concentrations of PnTX-G and SPX-1 ranged from 1.8 to 3.1 µg/kg and 1.2 to 6.9 µg/kg, respectively, and PnTX-A was detected in the group of samples with higher levels of PnTX-G after a solid phase extraction (SPE) step used for the concentration of extracts.
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