Molecular Epidemiology of Methicillin-Susceptible and Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Wild, Captive and Laboratory Rats: Effect of Habitat on the Nasal S. aureus Population

Isolation of community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) sequence type (ST) 30 from house rats (Rattus tanezumi) in Hong Kong

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is of major public health concern due to its resistance to multiple antibiotics. This resistance has been observed in various settings, including hospitals and communities, and has been detected in both animals and humans. Although peridomestic rat species (Rattus spp.) are well described reservoirs of several human pathogens and antimicrobial resistant bacteria, little is known about their role in MRSA epidemiology. In order to investigate whether Rattus spp. in Hong Kong are potential carriers of MRSA, 221 rats were caught from various ecological areas and nasopharyngeal samples were cultured on MRSA selective media. Genotypic characteristics of MRSA were confirmed by whole genome sequencing. Two clonal sequence type (ST) 30 MRSA isolates, harbouring mecA on staphylococcal chromosome cassette (SCC) mec type IVc, were cultured from two house rats (Rattus tanezumi) caught in two densely populated urban areas. To the best of the authors' knowledge, this is the first detection of community-associated (CA)-MRSA strain ST30 SCCmec IVc in peridomestic rodents in Hong Kong and globally. Our finding indicates that house rats can be carriers of MRSA strains that are widely distributed in the community.

Comparative Evaluation of the Antibiotic Resistance Profile of Staphylococcus aureus Isolated From Breeders and Livestock

Objectives

Animals are a potential source of Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus. This study evaluated the antibiotics susceptibility pattern of S. aureus isolates from breeders and livestock.

Methods

S. aureus strains were isolated from 180 livestock and 48 livestock farmers and identified using standard methods. Antibiotic susceptibility profiles and MRSA status were determined via disk diffusion susceptibility method.

Results

Among farm workers, 37.5% were colonized by S. aureus, with pig farm workers exhibiting the highest prevalence (56.2%), cattle herders (37.5%), and goat farm workers (18.7%). MRSA carriage among livestock isolates was 41.3%, while, six isolates from the poultry farm worker were MRSA, representing a carriage of 33.3%. Drug susceptibility profiles revealed differential patterns between isolates from breeders and animals. Gentamicin and levofloxacin demonstrated higher efficacy against farm worker isolates compared to animal isolates. Resistance to cefuroxime was higher among animal isolates (84.1%) as against the 66.7% for the breeders.

Conclusion

The identification of multidrug-resistant S. aureus strains underscores the risk posed to humans in contact with animals. These findings stress the importance of monitoring and managing MRSA transmission between animals and humans.

Antimicrobial use in laboratory rodent facilities in Australia and New Zealand- a cross-sectional survey of veterinarians and facility managers

This cross-sectional study surveyed veterinarians and facility managers to characterise the use of antimicrobials in laboratory rodent facilities within Australia and New Zealand. Most facilities (71%) reported routine administration of antimicrobials. The indications for antibiotic use reflected those described in publications and differed significantly to reasons for use in non-laboratory animals. Antimicrobials used include those of critical importance to human health, and access to these drugs is unregulated, as prescription-only classes are ordered through research catalogues, without human or veterinary physician prescriptions. The ways in which antimicrobials are used in Australian and New Zealand rodent facilities are likely contributing to antimicrobial resistance within rodent populations, particularly as they are largely administered in drinking water, risking subtherapeutic dosing. Much antimicrobial use reported is unnecessary and could be replaced with changes to husbandry and handling. The generation of resistance in both pathogenic and commensal microbes may also represent a work health and safety issue for humans working with these animals. Reported disposal of antimicrobials included discharge into wastewater, without inactivation, and some respondents reported disposal of substrate, or soiled bedding, nesting material, and disposable enrichment items, from treated animals and medicated feed into landfill, without prior inactivation. Environmental contamination with resistant microbes and antimicrobials is a significant driver of antimicrobial resistance. As such, significant opportunities exist to implement judicious and responsible use of antimicrobials within research rodent facilities in Australia and New Zealand, with a particular focus on instituting aseptic surgery, optimising dosing regimens, and inactivation of medicated water and substrate before disposal.

Bacteriophage-driven emergence and expansion of Staphylococcus aureus in rodent populations

Human activities such as agriculturalization and domestication have led to the emergence of many new pathogens via host-switching events between humans, domesticated and wild animals. Staphylococcus aureus is a multi-host opportunistic pathogen with a global healthcare and economic burden. Recently, it was discovered that laboratory and wild rodents can be colonised and infected with S. aureus, but the origins and zoonotic potential of rodent S. aureus is unknown. In order to trace their evolutionary history, we employed a dataset of 1249 S. aureus genome sequences including 393 of isolates from rodents and other small mammals (including newly determined sequences for 305 isolates from 7 countries). Among laboratory mouse populations, we identified multiple widespread rodent-specific S. aureus clones that likely originated in humans. Phylogeographic analysis of the most common murine lineage CC88 suggests that it emerged in the 1980s in laboratory mouse facilities most likely in North America, from where it spread to institutions around the world, via the distribution of mice for research. In contrast, wild rodents (mice, voles, squirrels) were colonized with a unique complement of S. aureus lineages that are widely disseminated across Europe. In order to investigate the molecular basis for S. aureus adaptation to rodent hosts, genome-wide association analysis was carried out revealing a unique complement of bacteriophages associated with a rodent host ecology. Of note, we identified novel prophages and pathogenicity islands in rodent-derived S. aureus that conferred the potential for coagulation of rodent plasma, a key phenotype of abscess formation and persistence. Our findings highlight the remarkable capacity of S. aureus to expand into new host populations, driven by the acquisition of genes promoting survival in new host-species.

Physiological strategies in wild rodents: immune defenses of commensal rats

The importance of issues associated with urban/commensal rats and mice (property damage, management costs, and health risks) press upon research on these animals. While the demography of commensal rodents is mostly studied, the need for understanding factors influencing their natural morbidity/mortality is also stressed. In this respect, more attention is expected to be paid to immunity, the physiological mechanism of defense against host survival threats (pathogens, parasites, diseases). Commensal rats and mice carry numerous pathogens that evoke diverse immune responses. The state of immunity in commensal house mice is studied in great detail, owing to the use of laboratory strains in biomedical research. Because commensal rats are, compared to mice, carriers of more zoonotic agents, rats' immunity is studied mainly in that context. Some of these zoonotic agents cause chronic, asymptomatic infections, which justified studies of immunological mechanisms of pathogen tolerance versus clearance regulation in rats. Occurrence of some infections in specific tissues/organs pressed upon analysis of local/regional immune responses and/or immunopathology. A survey of immunological activity/responses in commensal rats is given in this review, with mention of existing data in commensal mice. It should throw some light on the factors relevant to their morbidity and lifespan, supplementing the knowledge of commensal rodent ecology.

A look at staphylococci from the one health perspective

Staphylococcus aureus and other staphylococcal species are resident and transient multihost colonizers as well as conditional pathogens. Especially S. aureus represents an excellent model bacterium for the "One Health" concept because of its dynamics at the human-animal interface and versatility with respect to host adaptation. The development of antimicrobial resistance plays another integral part. This overview will focus on studies at the human-animal interface with respect to livestock farming and to companion animals, as well as on staphylococci in wildlife. In this context transmissions of staphylococci and of antimicrobial resistance genes between animals and humans are of particular significance.

Identification of Bacterial Strains and Development of anmRNA-Based Vaccine to Combat Antibiotic Resistance in Staphylococcus aureus via In Vitro and In Silico Approaches

The emergence of antibiotic-resistant microorganisms is a significant concern in global health. Antibiotic resistance is attributed to various virulent factors and genetic elements. This study investigated the virulence factors of Staphylococcus aureus to create an mRNA-based vaccine that could help prevent antibiotic resistance. Distinct strains of the bacteria were selected for molecular identification of virulence genes, such as spa, fmhA, lukD, and hla-D, which were performed utilizing PCR techniques. DNA extraction from samples of Staphylococcus aureus was conducted using the Cetyl Trimethyl Ammonium Bromide (CTAB) method, which was confirmed and visualized using a gel doc; 16S rRNA was utilized to identify the bacterial strains, and primers of spa, lukD, fmhA, and hla-D genes were employed to identify the specific genes. Sequencing was carried out at Applied Bioscience International (ABI) in Malaysia. Phylogenetic analysis and alignment of the strains were subsequently constructed. We also performed an in silico analysis of the spa, fmhA, lukD, and hla-D genes to generate an antigen-specific vaccine. The virulence genes were translated into proteins, and a chimera was created using various linkers. The mRNA vaccine candidate was produced utilizing 18 epitopes, linkers, and an adjuvant, known as RpfE, to target the immune system. Testing determined that this design covered 90% of the population conservancy. An in silico immunological vaccine simulation was conducted to verify the hypothesis, including validating and predicting secondary and tertiary structures and molecular dynamics simulations to evaluate the vaccine’s long-term viability. This vaccine design may be further evaluated through in vivo and in vitro testing to assess its efficacy.

Pet Rats as the Likely Reservoir for Human Seoul Orthohantavirus Infection

Seoul orthohantavirus (SEOV) is a rat-associated zoonotic pathogen with an almost worldwide distribution. In 2019, the first autochthonous human case of SEOV-induced hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome was reported in Germany, and a pet rat was identified as the source of the zoonotic infection. To further investigate the SEOV reservoir, additional rats from the patient and another owner, all of which were purchased from the same vendor, were tested. SEOV RNA and anti-SEOV antibodies were found in both of the patient's rats and in two of the three rats belonging to the other owner. The complete coding sequences of the small (S), medium (M), and large (L) segments obtained from one rat per owner exhibited a high sequence similarity to SEOV strains of breeder rat or human origin from the Netherlands, France, the USA, and Great Britain. Serological screening of 490 rats from breeding facilities and 563 wild rats from Germany (2007-2020) as well as 594 wild rats from the Netherlands (2013-2021) revealed 1 and 6 seropositive individuals, respectively. However, SEOV RNA was not detected in any of these animals. Increased surveillance of pet, breeder, and wild rats is needed to identify the origin of the SEOV strain in Europe and to develop measures to prevent transmission to the human population.

Staphylococcus aureus lineages associated with a free-ranging population of the fruit bat Pteropus livingstonii retained over 25 years in captivity

Conservation of endangered species has become increasingly complex, and costly interventions to protect wildlife require a robust scientific evidence base. This includes consideration of the role of the microbiome in preserving animal health. Captivity introduces stressors not encountered in the wild including environmental factors and exposure to exotic species, humans and antimicrobial drugs. These stressors may perturb the microbiomes of wild animals, with negative consequences for their health and welfare and hence the success of the conservation project, and ultimately the risk of release of non-native organisms into native ecosystems. We compared the genomes of Staphylococcus aureus colonising critically endangered Livingstone’s fruit bats (Pteropus livingstonii) which have been in a captive breeding programme for 25 years, with those from bats in the endemic founder population free ranging in the Comoros Republic. Using whole genome sequencing, we compared 47 isolates from captive bats with 37 isolates from those free ranging in the Comoros Republic. Our findings demonstrate unexpected resilience in the bacteria carried, with the captive bats largely retaining the same two distinctive lineages carried at the time of capture. In addition, we found evidence of genomic changes which suggest specific adaptations to the bat host.

Development and validation of a triplex real-time qPCR for sensitive detection and quantification of major rat bite fever pathogen Streptobacillus moniliformis

Streptobacillus (S.) moniliformis is the most important pathogen causing rat bite fever (RBF) worldwide. This zoonotic pathogen is understudied mainly due to difficulties in culturing S. moniliformis as a fastidious microorganism. Therefore, advances in molecular detection techniques are highly needed, especially with regard to the widespread availability of real-time quantitative (q) PCR in laboratories. In this study, we aimed to develop a qPCR for the identification of Streptobacillus species and quantification of S. moniliformis in clinical samples, especially those derived from tissue samples of animal origin. We optimized a previously described PCR protocol in order to develop a qPCR, which can detect different Streptobacillus species with high specificity and is simultaneously able to quantitate S. moniliformis in different clinical matrices. The qPCR exhibited a limit of detection (LOD) of 21 copies/reaction representing ~4-5 streptobacilli, while the limit of quantification (LOQ) was 2.1 × 10³ copies/reaction. It was also more sensitive than conventional PCR by two orders of magnitude and proved to have a substantial agreement (Kappa 0.74) compared to it with a superior detection rate in 374 samples from wild rats, laboratory rats and animals from holdings of wild-trapped rats. To conclude, the qPCR described in this study is an important molecular tool that is able to quantify S. moniliformis in tissue samples of animal origin. It represents a suitable tool for future establishment and evaluation of other molecular assays that are highly needed for a better understanding of epidemiology and pathophysiology of RBF. In experimental studies, it will also be useful for titration purposes since the quantification of the organism using classical plate counting technique is problematic and inaccurate.

Staphylococcus ratti sp. nov. Isolated from a Lab Rat

Staphylococci from the Staphylococcus intermedius-Staphylococcus hyicus species group include numerous animal pathogens and are an important reservoir of virulence and antimicrobial resistance determinants. Due to their pathogenic potential, they are possible causative agents of zoonoses in humans; therefore, it is important to address the properties of these strains. Here we used a polyphasic taxonomic approach to characterize the coagulase-negative staphylococcal strain NRL/St 03/464^T, isolated from the nostrils of a healthy laboratory rat during a microbiological screening of laboratory animals. The 16S rRNA sequence, MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry and positive urea hydrolysis and beta-glucuronidase tests clearly distinguished it from closely related Staphylococcus spp. All analyses have consistently shown that the closest relative is Staphylococcus chromogenes; however, values of digital DNA-DNA hybridization <35.3% and an average nucleotide identity <81.4% confirmed that the analyzed strain is a distinct Staphylococcus species. Whole-genome sequencing and expert annotation of the genome revealed the presence of novel variable genetic elements, including two plasmids named pSR9025A and pSR9025B, prophages, genomic islands and a composite transposon that may confer selective advantages to other bacteria and enhance their survival. Based on phenotypic, phylogenetic and genomic data obtained in this study, the strain NRL/St 03/464^T (= CCM 9025^T = LMG 31873^T = DSM 111348^T) represents a novel species with the suggested name Staphylococcus ratti sp. nov.

Wild Animals Are Reservoirs and Sentinels of Staphylococcus aureus and MRSA Clones: A Problem with "One Health" Concern

Background: The availability of comprehensive data on the ecology and molecular epidemiology of Staphylococcus aureus/MRSA in wild animals is necessary to understand their relevance in the "One Health" domain. Objective: In this study, we determined the pooled prevalence of nasal, tracheal and/or oral (NTO) Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) and methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) carriage in wild animals, with a special focus on mecA and mecC genes as well as the frequency of MRSA and methicillin susceptible S. aureus (MSSA) of the lineages CC398 and CC130 in wild animals. Methodology: This systematic review was executed on cross-sectional studies that reported S. aureus and MRSA in the NTO cavities of wild animals distributed in four groups: non-human primates (NHP), wild mammals (WM, excluding rodents and NHP), wild birds (WB) and wild rodents (WR). Appropriate and eligible articles published (in English) between 1 January 2011 to 30 August 2021 were searched for from PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar, SciElo and Web of Science. Results: Of the 33 eligible and analysed studies, the pooled prevalence of NTO S. aureus and MRSA carriage was 18.5% (range: 0-100%) and 2.1% (range: 0.0-63.9%), respectively. The pooled prevalence of S. aureus/MRSA in WM, NHP, WB and WR groups was 15.8/1.6, 32.9/2.0, 10.3/3.4 and 24.2/3.4%, respectively. The prevalence of mecC-MRSA among WM/NHP/WB/WR was 1.64/0.0/2.1/0.59%, respectively, representing 89.9/0.0/59.1/25.0% of total MRSA detected in these groups of animals.The MRSA-CC398 and MRSA-CC130 lineages were most prevalent in wild birds (0.64 and 2.07%, respectively); none of these lineages were reported in NHP studies. The MRSA-CC398 (mainly of spa-type t011, 53%), MRSA-CC130 (mainly of spa types t843 and t1535, 73%), MSSA-CC398 (spa-types t571, t1451, t6606 and t034) and MSSA-CC130 (spa types t843, t1535, t3625 and t3256) lineages were mostly reported. Conclusion: Although the global prevalence of MRSA is low in wild animals, mecC-mediated resistance was particularly prevalent among MRSA isolates, especially among WM and WB. Considering the genetic diversity of MRSA in wild animals, they need to be monitored for effective control of the spread of antimicrobial resistance.

The Role of hlb-Converting Bacteriophages in Staphylococcus aureus Host Adaption

As an opportunistic pathogen of humans and animals, Staphylococcus aureus asymptomatically colonizes the nasal cavity but is also a leading cause of life-threatening acute and chronic infections. The evolution of S. aureus resulting from short- and long-term adaptation to diverse hosts is tightly associated with mobile genetic elements. S. aureus strains can carry up to four temperate phages, many of which possess accessory genes encoding staphylococcal virulence factors. More than 90% of human nasal isolates of S. aureus have been shown to carry Sa3int phages, whereas invasive S. aureus isolates tend to lose these phages. Sa3int phages integrate as prophages into the bacterial hlb gene, disrupting the expression of the sphingomyelinase Hlb, an important virulence factor under specific infection conditions. Virulence factors encoded by genes carried by Sa3int phages include staphylokinase, enterotoxins, chemotaxis-inhibitory protein, and staphylococcal complement inhibitor, all of which are highly human specific and probably essential for bacterial survival in the human host. The transmission of S. aureus from humans to animals is strongly correlated with the loss of Sa3int phages, whereas phages are regained once a strain is transmitted from animals to humans. Thus, both the insertion and excision of prophages may confer a fitness advantage to this bacterium. There is also growing evidence that Sa3int phages may perform "active lysogeny," a process during which prophages are temporally excised from the chromosome without forming intact phage particles. The molecular mechanisms controlling the peculiar life cycle of Sa3int phages remain largely unclear. Nevertheless, their regulation is likely fine-tuned to ensure bacterial survival within different hosts.

Antimicrobial Resistance and Genetic Lineages of Staphylococcus aureus from Wild Rodents: First Report of mecC-Positive Methicillin-Resistant S. aureus (MRSA) in Portugal

The frequent carriage of Staphylococcus aureus, including methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA), by wild animals along with its zoonotic potential poses a public health problem. Furthermore, the repeated detection of the mecA gene homologue, mecC, in wildlife raises the question whether these animals may be a reservoir for mecC-MRSA. Thus, we aimed to isolate S. aureus and MRSA from wild rodents living in port areas and to characterize their antimicrobial resistance and genetic lineages. Mouth and rectal swab samples were recovered from 204 wild rodents. The samples were incubated in BHI broth with 6.5% of NaCl and after 24 h at 37 °C the inoculum was seeded onto Baird-Parker agar, Mannitol Salt agar and ORSAB (supplemented with 2 mg/L of oxacillin) plates. Species identification was confirmed by MALDI-TOF MS. The antimicrobial susceptibility testing was performed by the Kirby-Bauer disc diffusion method against 14 antibiotics. The presence of virulence and resistance genes was performed by PCR. The immune evasion cluster (IEC) system was investigated in all S. aureus. All isolates were characterized by MLST, spa- and agr typing. From 204 samples, 38 S. aureus were isolated of which six MRSA were detected. Among the six MRSA isolates, three harbored the mecC gene and the other three, the mecA gene. All mecC-MRSA isolates were ascribed to sequence type (ST) 1945 (which belongs to CC130) and spa-type t1535 whereas the mecA isolates belonged to ST22 and ST36 and spa-types t747 and t018. Twenty-five S. aureus were susceptible to all antibiotics tested. S. aureus isolates were ascribed to 11 MLST and 12 spa-types. S. aureus presents a great diversity of genetic lineages in wild rodents. This is the first report of mecC-MRSA in Portugal.

Health Monitoring of Laboratory Rodent Colonies-Talking about (R)evolution

The health monitoring of laboratory rodents is essential for ensuring animal health and standardization in biomedical research. Progress in housing, gnotobiotic derivation, and hygienic monitoring programs led to enormous improvement of the microbiological quality of laboratory animals. While traditional health monitoring and pathogen detection methods still serve as powerful tools for the diagnostics of common animal diseases, molecular methods develop rapidly and not only improve test sensitivities but also allow high throughput analyses of various sample types. Concurrently, to the progress in pathogen detection and elimination, the research community becomes increasingly aware of the striking influence of microbiome compositions in laboratory animals, affecting disease phenotypes and the scientific value of research data. As repeated re-derivation cycles and strict barrier husbandry of laboratory rodents resulted in a limited diversity of the animals' gut microbiome, future monitoring approaches will have to reform-aiming at enhancing the validity of animal experiments. This review will recapitulate common health monitoring concepts and, moreover, outline strategies and measures on coping with microbiome variation in order to increase reproducibility, replicability and generalizability.

Fatal exudative dermatitis in island populations of red squirrels (Sciurus vulgaris): spillover of a virulent Staphylococcus aureus clone (ST49) from reservoir hosts

Fatal exudative dermatitis (FED) is a significant cause of death of red squirrels (Sciurus vulgaris) on the island of Jersey in the Channel Islands where it is associated with a virulent clone of Staphylococcus aureus, ST49. S. aureus ST49 has been found in other hosts such as small mammals, pigs and humans, but the dynamics of carriage and disease of this clone, or any other lineage in red squirrels, is currently unknown. We used whole-genome sequencing to characterize 228 isolates from healthy red squirrels on Jersey, the Isle of Arran (Scotland) and Brownsea Island (England), from red squirrels showing signs of FED on Jersey and the Isle of Wight (England) and a small number of isolates from other hosts. S. aureus was frequently carried by red squirrels on the Isle of Arran with strains typically associated with small ruminants predominating. For the Brownsea carriage, S. aureus was less frequent and involved strains associated with birds, small ruminants and humans, while for the Jersey carriage S. aureus was rare but ST49 predominated in diseased squirrels. By combining our data with publicly available sequences, we show that the S. aureus carriage in red squirrels largely reflects frequent but facile acquisitions of strains carried by other hosts sharing their habitat ('spillover'), possibly including, in the case of ST188, humans. Genome-wide association analysis of the ruminant lineage ST133 revealed variants in a small number of mostly bacterial-cell-membrane-associated genes that were statistically associated with squirrel isolates from the Isle of Arran, raising the possibility of specific adaptation to red squirrels in this lineage. In contrast there is little evidence that ST49 is a common carriage isolate of red squirrels and infection from reservoir hosts such as bank voles or rats, is likely to be driving the emergence of FED in red squirrels.

Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococci and Macrococci at the Interface of Human and Animal Health

The global impact of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) clonal lineages on human and animal health continues, even considering the decreasing MRSA rates in some parts of the world [...].

Staphylococcus aureus Host Tropism and Its Implications for Murine Infection Models

Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) is a pathobiont of humans as well as a multitude of animal species. The high prevalence of multi-resistant and more virulent strains of S. aureus necessitates the development of new prevention and treatment strategies for S. aureus infection. Major advances towards understanding the pathogenesis of S. aureus diseases have been made using conventional mouse models, i.e., by infecting naïve laboratory mice with human-adapted S.aureus strains. However, the failure to transfer certain results obtained in these murine systems to humans highlights the limitations of such models. Indeed, numerous S. aureus vaccine candidates showed promising results in conventional mouse models but failed to offer protection in human clinical trials. These limitations arise not only from the widely discussed physiological differences between mice and humans, but also from the lack of attention that is paid to the specific interactions of S. aureus with its respective host. For instance, animal-derived S. aureus lineages show a high degree of host tropism and carry a repertoire of host-specific virulence and immune evasion factors. Mouse-adapted S.aureus strains, humanized mice, and microbiome-optimized mice are promising approaches to overcome these limitations and could improve transferability of animal experiments to human trials in the future.

Prevalence of oxacillin-susceptible methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus nasal carriage and their clonal diversity among patients attending public health-care facilities

Context

Nosocomial infections arise from many microorganisms, including Staphylococcus aureus.

Aims

The aim of this study is to determine the molecular epidemiology of circulating methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) clones among patients attending community and health-care facilities in Nova Friburgo, RJ, Brazil.

Methods

A total of 1002 nasal swab samples were collected from May 2010 to September 2015. S. aureus isolates were identified through phenotypic tests, submitted to antimicrobial susceptibility tests and genotypic analysis to detect mecA, panton-valentine leucocidin (PVL) genes, SCCmec, SPA and multilocus sequencing typing (MLST) typing.

Results

We identified 294 (29.3%) isolates as S. aureus and 91 (9.1%) as MRSA. A total of 17 isolates did not present a correlation between phenotypic and genotypic resistance profiles. Among MRSA isolates, 17 (18.7%) carried PVL genes. A total of 20 different SPA types were determined, being grouped by MLST into eight different sequence types. ST5/t002 was the most prevalent genotype found among these isolates.

Conclusions

There is a gradual colonisation shift happening in the infection pattern by S. aureus in Brazil. The Brazilian Epidemic Clone (ST239-SCCmec IIIa-PVL-) seems to be substituted by isolates from different clonal complexes, such as ST5, ST8 and ST30. The non-correlation between phenotypic/genotypic resistance profile observed in some isolates suggests the presence of other methicillin resistance mechanisms different from mecA presence or a difference in the nucleotide sequence, which prevents the primers to identify the specific region during polymerase chain reaction reactions. MRSA identification should be based on phenotypic and genotypic testing to ensure the various types of resistance mechanisms.