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Ayache N, Campbell L, Gobler CJ, Smith JL. Photoacclimation and photophysiology of four species of toxigenic Dinophysis. HARMFUL ALGAE 2024; 136:102624. [PMID: 38876524 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2024.102624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2024] [Revised: 03/27/2024] [Accepted: 04/02/2024] [Indexed: 06/16/2024]
Abstract
This study aimed to explore the effects of different light intensities on the ecophysiology of eight new Dinophysis isolates comprising four species (D. acuminata, D. ovum, D. fortii, and D. caudata) collected from different geographical regions in the US. After six months of acclimation, the growth rates, photosynthetic efficiency (Fv/Fm ratio), toxin content, and net toxin production rates of the Dinophysis strains were examined. The growth rates of D. acuminata and D. ovum isolates were comparable across light intensities, with the exception of one D. acuminata strain (DANY1) that was unable to grow at the lowest light intensity. However, D. fortii and D. caudata strains were photoinhibited and grew at a slower rate at the highest light intensity, indicating a lower degree of adaptability and tolerance to such conditions. Photosynthetic efficiency was similar for all Dinophysis isolates and negatively correlated with exposure to high light intensities. Multiple toxin metrics, including cellular toxin content and net production rates of DSTs and PTXs, were variable among species and even among isolates of the same species in response to light intensity. A pattern was detected, however, whereby the net production rates of PTXs were significantly lower across all Dinophysis isolates when exposed to the lowest light intensity. These findings provide a basis for understanding the effects of light intensity on the eco-physiological characteristics of Dinophysis species in the US and could be employed to develop integrated physical-biological models for species and strains of interest to predict their population dynamics and mitigate their negative effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nour Ayache
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, William & Mary, Gloucester Point, VA 23062, USA
| | - Lisa Campbell
- Department of Oceanography and Department of Biology, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843, USA
| | - Christopher J Gobler
- School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences, Stony Brook University, Southampton, NY 11968, USA
| | - Juliette L Smith
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, William & Mary, Gloucester Point, VA 23062, USA.
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Yang J, Sun W, Sun M, Cui Y, Wang L. Current Research Status of Azaspiracids. Mar Drugs 2024; 22:79. [PMID: 38393050 PMCID: PMC10890026 DOI: 10.3390/md22020079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2023] [Revised: 01/31/2024] [Accepted: 02/02/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
The presence and impact of toxins have been detected in various regions worldwide ever since the discovery of azaspiracids (AZAs) in 1995. These toxins have had detrimental effects on marine resource utilization, marine environmental protection, and fishery production. Over the course of more than two decades of research and development, scientists from all over the world have conducted comprehensive studies on the in vivo metabolism, in vitro synthesis methods, pathogenic mechanisms, and toxicology of these toxins. This paper aims to provide a systematic introduction to the discovery, distribution, pathogenic mechanism, in vivo biosynthesis, and in vitro artificial synthesis of AZA toxins. Additionally, it will summarize various detection methods employed over the past 20 years, along with their advantages and disadvantages. This effort will contribute to the future development of rapid detection technologies and the invention of detection devices for AZAs in marine environmental samples.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Lianghua Wang
- Basic Medical College, Naval Medical University, Shanghai 200433, China; (J.Y.); (W.S.); (M.S.); (Y.C.)
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3
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Pease SK, Egerton TA, Reece KS, Sanderson MP, Onofrio MD, Yeargan E, Wood A, Roach A, Huang ISW, Scott GP, Place AR, Hayes AM, Smith JL. Co-occurrence of marine and freshwater phycotoxins in oysters, and analysis of possible predictors for management. Toxicon X 2023; 19:100166. [PMID: 37448555 PMCID: PMC10336265 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxcx.2023.100166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2023] [Revised: 05/16/2023] [Accepted: 06/06/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Oysters (Crassostrea virginica) were screened for 12 phycotoxins over two years in nearshore waters to collect baseline phycotoxin data and to determine prevalence of phycotoxin co-occurrence in the commercially and ecologically-relevant species. Trace to low concentrations of azaspiracid-1 and -2 (AZA1, AZA2), domoic acid (DA), okadaic acid (OA), and dinophysistoxin-1 (DTX1) were detected, orders of magnitude below seafood safety action levels. Microcystins (MCs), MC-RR and MC-YR, were also found in oysters (maximum: 7.12 μg MC-RR/kg shellfish meat wet weight), warranting consideration of developing action levels for freshwater phycotoxins in marine shellfish. Oysters contained phycotoxins that impair shellfish health: karlotoxin1-1 and 1-3 (KmTx1-1, KmTx1-3), goniodomin A (GDA), and pectenotoxin-2 (PTX2). Co-occurrence of phycotoxins in oysters was common (54%, n = 81). AZAs and DA co-occurred most frequently of the phycotoxins investigated that are a concern for human health (n = 13) and PTX2 and KmTxs co-occurred most frequently amongst the phycotoxins of concern for shellfish health (n = 9). Various harmful algal bloom (HAB) monitoring methods and tools were assessed for their effectiveness at indicating levels of phycotoxins in oysters. These included co-deployed solid phase adsorption toxin tracking (SPATT) devices, toxin levels in particulate organic matter (POM, >1.5 μm) and whole water samples and cell concentrations from water samples as determined by microscopy and quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR). The dominant phycotoxin varied between SPATTs and all other phycotoxin sample types, and out of the 11 phycotoxins detected in oysters, only four and seven were detected in POM and whole water respectively, indicating phycotoxin profile mismatch between ecosystem compartments. Nevertheless, there were correlations between DA in oysters and whole water (simple linear regression [LR]: R2 = 0.6, p < 0.0001, n = 40), and PTX2 in oysters and SPATTs (LR: R2 = 0.3, p = 0.001, n = 36), providing additional monitoring tools for these phycotoxins, but oyster samples remain the best overall indicators of seafood safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah K.D. Pease
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, William & Mary, P.O. Box 1346, Gloucester Point, VA, 23062, USA
| | - Todd A. Egerton
- Division of Shellfish Safety and Waterborne Hazards, Virginia Department of Health, Norfolk, VA, 23510, USA
| | - Kimberly S. Reece
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, William & Mary, P.O. Box 1346, Gloucester Point, VA, 23062, USA
| | - Marta P. Sanderson
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, William & Mary, P.O. Box 1346, Gloucester Point, VA, 23062, USA
| | - Michelle D. Onofrio
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, William & Mary, P.O. Box 1346, Gloucester Point, VA, 23062, USA
| | - Evan Yeargan
- Division of Shellfish Safety and Waterborne Hazards, Virginia Department of Health, Norfolk, VA, 23510, USA
| | - Adam Wood
- Division of Shellfish Safety and Waterborne Hazards, Virginia Department of Health, Norfolk, VA, 23510, USA
| | - Amanda Roach
- Division of Shellfish Safety and Waterborne Hazards, Virginia Department of Health, Norfolk, VA, 23510, USA
| | - I-Shuo Wade Huang
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, William & Mary, P.O. Box 1346, Gloucester Point, VA, 23062, USA
| | - Gail P. Scott
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, William & Mary, P.O. Box 1346, Gloucester Point, VA, 23062, USA
| | - Allen R. Place
- Institute of Marine and Environmental Technology, University of Maryland, Center for Environmental Sciences, Baltimore, MD, 21202, USA
| | - Amy M. Hayes
- Public Health Toxicology Program, Virginia Department of Health, Richmond, VA, 23219, USA
| | - Juliette L. Smith
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, William & Mary, P.O. Box 1346, Gloucester Point, VA, 23062, USA
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Harris CM, Hintze L, Gaillard S, Tanniou S, Small H, Reece KS, Tillmann U, Krock B, Harris TM. Mass spectrometric characterization of the seco acid formed by cleavage of the macrolide ring of the algal metabolite goniodomin A. Toxicon 2023; 231:107159. [PMID: 37210046 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2023.107159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2023] [Revised: 05/10/2023] [Accepted: 05/11/2023] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Goniodomin A (GDA) is a polyketide macrolide produced by multiple species of the marine dinoflagellate genus Alexandrium. GDA is unusual in that it undergoes cleavage of the ester linkage under mild conditions to give mixtures of seco acids (GDA-sa). Ring-opening occurs even in pure water although the rate of cleavage accelerates with increasing pH. The seco acids exist as a dynamic mixture of structural and stereo isomers which is only partially separable by chromatography. Freshly prepared seco acids show only end absorption in the UV spectrum but a gradual bathochromic change occurs, which is consistent with formation of α,β-unsaturated ketones. Use of NMR and crystallography is precluded for structure elucidation. Nevertheless, structural assignments can be made by mass spectrometric techniques. Retro-Diels-Alder fragmentation has been of value for independently characterizing the head and tail regions of the seco acids. The chemical transformations of GDA revealed in the current studies help clarify observations made on laboratory cultures and in the natural environment. GDA has been found to reside mainly within the algal cells while the seco acids are mainly external with the transformation of GDA to the seco acids occurring largely outside the cells. This relationship, plus the fact that GDA is short-lived in growth medium whereas GDA-sa is long-lived, suggests that the toxicological properties of GDA-sa in its natural environment are more important for the survival of the Alexandrium spp. than those of GDA. The structural similarity of GDA-sa to that of monensin is noted. Monensin has strong antimicrobial properties, attributed to its ability to transport sodium ions across cell membranes. We propose that toxic properties of GDA may primarily be due to the ability of GDA-sa to mediate metal ion transport across cell membranes of predator organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Constance M Harris
- Department of Chemistry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37235, USA
| | - Luisa Hintze
- Alfred Wegener Institut-Helmholtz Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung (AWI), 27570, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Sylvain Gaillard
- Department of Aquatic Health Sciences, Virginia Institute of Marine Science (VIMS), William & Mary, Gloucester Point, VA, 23062, USA
| | - Simon Tanniou
- Ifremer, PHYTOX, Laboratoire METALG, F-44000, Nantes, France
| | - Hamish Small
- Department of Aquatic Health Sciences, Virginia Institute of Marine Science (VIMS), William & Mary, Gloucester Point, VA, 23062, USA
| | - Kimberly S Reece
- Department of Aquatic Health Sciences, Virginia Institute of Marine Science (VIMS), William & Mary, Gloucester Point, VA, 23062, USA
| | - Urban Tillmann
- Alfred Wegener Institut-Helmholtz Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung (AWI), 27570, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Bernd Krock
- Alfred Wegener Institut-Helmholtz Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung (AWI), 27570, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Thomas M Harris
- Department of Chemistry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37235, USA.
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Ayache N, Bill BD, Brosnahan ML, Campbell L, Deeds JR, Fiorendino JM, Gobler CJ, Handy SM, Harrington N, Kulis DM, McCarron P, Miles CO, Moore SK, Nagai S, Trainer VL, Wolny JL, Young CS, Smith JL. A survey of Dinophysis spp. and their potential to cause diarrhetic shellfish poisoning in coastal waters of the United States. JOURNAL OF PHYCOLOGY 2023; 59:658-680. [PMID: 36964950 DOI: 10.1111/jpy.13331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2022] [Revised: 02/22/2023] [Accepted: 02/22/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Multiple species of the genus Dinophysis produce diarrhetic shellfish toxins (okadaic acid and Dinophysis toxins, OA/DTXs analogs) and/or pectenotoxins (PTXs). Only since 2008 have DSP events (illnesses and/or shellfish harvesting closures) become recognized as a threat to human health in the United States. This study characterized 20 strains representing five species of Dinophysis spp. isolated from three US coastal regions that have experienced DSP events: the Northeast/Mid-Atlantic, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Pacific Northwest. Using a combination of morphometric and DNA-based evidence, seven Northeast/Mid-Atlantic isolates and four Pacific Northwest isolates were classified as D. acuminata, a total of four isolates from two coasts were classified as D. norvegica, two isolates from the Pacific Northwest coast were identified as D. fortii, and three isolates from the Gulf of Mexico were identified as D. ovum and D. caudata. Toxin profiles of D. acuminata and D. norvegica varied by their geographical origin within the United States. Cross-regional comparison of toxin profiles was not possible with the other three species; however, within each region, distinct species-conserved profiles for isolates of D. fortii, D. ovum, and D. caudata were observed. Historical and recent data from various State and Tribal monitoring programs were compiled and compared, including maximum recorded cell abundances of Dinophysis spp., maximum concentrations of OA/DTXs recorded in commercial shellfish species, and durations of harvesting closures, to provide perspective regarding potential for DSP impacts to regional public health and shellfish industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nour Ayache
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, William & Mary, Gloucester Point, Virginia, 23062, USA
| | - Brian D Bill
- Environmental and Fisheries Science Division, Northwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Seattle, Washington, 98112, USA
| | - Michael L Brosnahan
- Department of Biology, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, Massachusetts, 02543, USA
| | - Lisa Campbell
- Department of Oceanography and Department of Biology, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, 77843, USA
- Department of Biology, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, 77843, USA
| | - Jonathan R Deeds
- Office of Regulatory Science, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, United States Food and Drug Administration, College Park, Maryland, 20740, USA
| | - James M Fiorendino
- Department of Oceanography and Department of Biology, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, 77843, USA
| | - Christopher J Gobler
- School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences, Stony Brook University, Southampton, New York, 11968, USA
| | - Sara M Handy
- Office of Regulatory Science, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, United States Food and Drug Administration, College Park, Maryland, 20740, USA
| | - Neil Harrington
- Department of Natural Resources, Jamestown S'Klallam Tribe, Sequim, Washington, 98382, USA
| | - David M Kulis
- Department of Biology, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, Massachusetts, 02543, USA
| | - Pearse McCarron
- Biotoxin Metrology, National Research Council Canada, Halifax, Nova Scotia, B3H 3Z1, Canada
| | - Christopher O Miles
- Biotoxin Metrology, National Research Council Canada, Halifax, Nova Scotia, B3H 3Z1, Canada
| | - Stephanie K Moore
- Conservation Biology Division, Northwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Seattle, Washington, 98112, USA
| | - Satoshi Nagai
- Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 236-8648, Japan
| | - Vera L Trainer
- Olympic Natural Resources Center, School of Environmental and Forest Sciences, University of Washington, Box 352100, Seattle, Washington, 98195, USA
| | - Jennifer L Wolny
- Office of Regulatory Science, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, United States Food and Drug Administration, College Park, Maryland, 20740, USA
| | - Craig S Young
- School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences, Stony Brook University, Southampton, New York, 11968, USA
| | - Juliette L Smith
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, William & Mary, Gloucester Point, Virginia, 23062, USA
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Gaillard S, Réveillon D, Mason PL, Ayache N, Sanderson M, Smith JL, Giddings S, McCarron P, Séchet V, Hégaret H, Hess P, Vogelbein WK. Mortality and histopathology in sheepshead minnow (Cyprinodon variegatus) larvae exposed to pectenotoxin-2 and Dinophysis acuminata. AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2023; 257:106456. [PMID: 36889127 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2023.106456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2022] [Revised: 02/16/2023] [Accepted: 02/19/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Toxic species of the dinoflagellate genus Dinophysis can produce diarrheic toxins including okadaic acid (OA) and dinophysistoxins (DTXs), and the non-diarrheic pectenotoxins (PTXs). Okadaic acid and DTXs cause diarrheic shellfish poisoning (DSP) in human consumers, and also cause cytotoxic, immunotoxic and genotoxic effects in a variety of mollusks and fishes at different life stages in vitro. The possible effects of co-produced PTXs or live cells of Dinophysis to aquatic organisms, however, are less understood. Effects on an early life stage of sheepshead minnow (Cyprinodon variegatus), a common finfish in eastern USA estuaries, were evaluated using a 96-h toxicity bioassay. Three-week old larvae were exposed to PTX2 concentrations from 50 to 4000 nM, live Dinophysis acuminata culture (strain DAVA01), live cells resuspended in clean medium or culture filtrate. This D. acuminata strain produced mainly intracellular PTX2 (≈ 21 pg cell-1), with much lower levels of OA and dinophysistoxin-1. No mortality or gill damages were observed in larvae exposed to D. acuminata (from 5 to 5500 cells mL-1), resuspended cells and culture filtrate. However, exposure to purified PTX2 at intermediate to high concentrations (from 250 to 4000 nM) resulted in 8 to 100% mortality after 96 h (24-h LC50 of 1231 nM). Histopathology and transmission electron microscopy of fish exposed to intermediate to high PTX2 concentrations revealed important gill damage, including intercellular edema, necrosis and sloughing of gill respiratory epithelia, and damage to the osmoregulatory epithelium, including hypertrophy, proliferation, redistribution and necrosis of chloride cells. Tissue damage in gills is likely caused by the interaction of PTX2 with the actin cytoskeleton of the affected gill epithelia. Overall, the severe gill pathology observed following the PTX2 exposure suggested death was due to loss of respiratory and osmoregulatory functions in C. variegatus larvae.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Gaillard
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, William & Mary, P.O. Box 1346, Gloucester Point, VA 23062, United States of America; IFREMER, PHYTOX unit, F-44000 Nantes, France.
| | - D Réveillon
- IFREMER, PHYTOX unit, F-44000 Nantes, France
| | - P L Mason
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, William & Mary, P.O. Box 1346, Gloucester Point, VA 23062, United States of America
| | - N Ayache
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, William & Mary, P.O. Box 1346, Gloucester Point, VA 23062, United States of America
| | - M Sanderson
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, William & Mary, P.O. Box 1346, Gloucester Point, VA 23062, United States of America
| | - J L Smith
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, William & Mary, P.O. Box 1346, Gloucester Point, VA 23062, United States of America
| | - S Giddings
- Biotoxin Metrology, National Research Council Canada, 1411 Oxford Street, Nova Scotia, Halifax B3H 3Z1, Canada
| | - P McCarron
- Biotoxin Metrology, National Research Council Canada, 1411 Oxford Street, Nova Scotia, Halifax B3H 3Z1, Canada
| | - V Séchet
- IFREMER, PHYTOX unit, F-44000 Nantes, France
| | - H Hégaret
- Laboratoire des Sciences de l'Environnement Marin (UMR6539 CNRS/UBO/IFREMER/IRD), Institut Universitaire Européen de la Mer, Technopôle Brest-Iroise, Plouzané 29280, France
| | - P Hess
- IFREMER, PHYTOX unit, F-44000 Nantes, France
| | - W K Vogelbein
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, William & Mary, P.O. Box 1346, Gloucester Point, VA 23062, United States of America
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Pease SKD, Brosnahan ML, Sanderson MP, Smith JL. Effects of Two Toxin-Producing Harmful Algae, Alexandrium catenella and Dinophysis acuminata (Dinophyceae), on Activity and Mortality of Larval Shellfish. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14050335. [PMID: 35622582 PMCID: PMC9143080 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14050335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2022] [Revised: 04/26/2022] [Accepted: 04/26/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Harmful algal bloom (HAB) species Alexandrium catenella and Dinophysis acuminata are associated with paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) and diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) in humans, respectively. While PSP and DSP have been studied extensively, less is known about the effects of these HAB species or their associated toxins on shellfish. This study investigated A. catenella and D. acuminata toxicity in a larval oyster (Crassostrea virginica) bioassay. Larval activity and mortality were examined through 96-h laboratory exposures to live HAB cells (10−1000 cells/mL), cell lysates (1000 cells/mL equivalents), and purified toxins (10,000 cells/mL equivalents). Exposure to 1000 cells/mL live or lysed D. acuminata caused larval mortality (21.9 ± 7.0%, 10.2 ± 4.0%, respectively) while exposure to any tested cell concentration of live A. catenella, but not lysate, caused swimming arrest and/or mortality in >50% of larvae. Exposure to high concentrations of saxitoxin (STX) or okadaic acid (OA), toxins traditionally associated with PSP and DSP, respectively, had no effect on larval activity or mortality. In contrast, pectenotoxin-2 (PTX2) caused rapid larval mortality (49.6 ± 5.8% by 48 h) and completely immobilized larval oysters. The results indicate that the toxic effects of A. catenella and D. acuminata on shellfish are not linked to the primary toxins associated with PSP and DSP in humans, and that PTX2 is acutely toxic to larval oysters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah K. D. Pease
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, William & Mary, P.O. Box 1346, Gloucester Point, VA 23062, USA; (S.K.D.P.); (M.P.S.)
| | - Michael L. Brosnahan
- Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Redfield 3-30, MS 32, Woods Hole, MA 02543, USA;
| | - Marta P. Sanderson
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, William & Mary, P.O. Box 1346, Gloucester Point, VA 23062, USA; (S.K.D.P.); (M.P.S.)
| | - Juliette L. Smith
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, William & Mary, P.O. Box 1346, Gloucester Point, VA 23062, USA; (S.K.D.P.); (M.P.S.)
- Correspondence:
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8
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A Generic LC-HRMS Screening Method for Marine and Freshwater Phycotoxins in Fish, Shellfish, Water, and Supplements. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13110823. [PMID: 34822607 PMCID: PMC8619867 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13110823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2021] [Revised: 11/16/2021] [Accepted: 11/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Phycotoxins occur in various marine and freshwater environments, and can accumulate in edible species such as fish, crabs, and shellfish. Human exposure to these toxins can take place, for instance, through consumption of contaminated species or supplements and through the ingestion of contaminated water. Symptoms of phycotoxin intoxication include paralysis, diarrhea, and amnesia. When the cause of an intoxication cannot directly be found, a screening method is required to identify the causative toxin. In this work, such a screening method was developed and validated for marine and freshwater phycotoxins in different matrices: fish, shellfish, water, and food supplements. Two LC methods were developed: one for hydrophilic and one for lipophilic phycotoxins. Sample extracts were measured in full scan mode with an Orbitrap high resolution mass spectrometer. Additionally, a database was created to process the data. The method was successfully validated for most matrices, and in addition, regulated lipophilic phycotoxins, domoic acid, and some paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins could be quantified in shellfish. The method showed limitations for hydrophilic phycotoxins in sea water and for lipophilic phycotoxins in food supplements. The developed method is a screening method; in order to confirm suspected compounds, comparison with a standard or an additional analysis such as NMR is required.
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9
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Harris CM, Krock B, Tillmann U, Tainter CJ, Stec DF, Andersen AJC, Larsen TO, Reece KS, Harris TM. Alkali Metal- and Acid-Catalyzed Interconversion of Goniodomin A with Congeners B and C. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2021; 84:2554-2567. [PMID: 34520205 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.1c00586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Goniodomin A (GDA, 1) is a phycotoxin produced by at least four species of Alexandrium dinoflagellates that are found globally in brackish estuaries and lagoons. It is a linear polyketide with six oxygen heterocyclic rings that is cyclized into a macrocyclic structure via lactone formation. Two of the oxygen heterocycles in 1 comprise a spiro-bis-pyran, whereas goniodomin B (GDB) contains a 2,7-dioxabicyclo[3.3.1]nonane ring system fused to a pyran. When H2O is present, 1 undergoes facile conversion to isomer GDB and to an α,β-unsaturated ketone, goniodomin C (GDC, 7). GDB and GDC can be formed from GDA by cleavage of the spiro-bis-pyran ring system. GDA, but not GDB or GDC, forms a crown ether-type complex with K+. Equilibration of GDA with GDB and GDC is observed in the presence of H+ and of Na+, but the equilibrated mixtures revert to GDA upon addition of K+. Structural differences have been found between the K+ and Na+ complexes. The association of GDA with K+ is strong, while that with Na+ is weak. The K+ complex has a compact, well-defined structure, whereas Na+ complexes are an ill-defined mixture of species. Analyses of in vitro A. monilatum and A. hiranoi cultures indicate that only GDA is present in the cells; GDB and GDC appear to be postharvest transformation products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Constance M Harris
- Department of Chemistry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37235, United States
| | - Bernd Krock
- Alfred Wegener Institut-Helmholtz Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung (AWI), Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Urban Tillmann
- Alfred Wegener Institut-Helmholtz Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung (AWI), Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Craig J Tainter
- Department of Chemistry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37235, United States
| | - Donald F Stec
- Department of Chemistry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37235, United States
| | - Aaron J C Andersen
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Søltofts Plads, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kgs., Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Thomas O Larsen
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Søltofts Plads, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kgs., Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Kimberly S Reece
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science (VIMS), William & Mary, Gloucester Point, Virginia 23062, United States
| | - Thomas M Harris
- Department of Chemistry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37235, United States
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science (VIMS), William & Mary, Gloucester Point, Virginia 23062, United States
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10
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Gibson-Kueh S, Uichanco JA. The pathology associated with putative algal toxicosis in red snapper, Lutjanus species (Bloch 1790). JOURNAL OF FISH DISEASES 2021; 44:857-861. [PMID: 33774842 DOI: 10.1111/jfd.13371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2021] [Accepted: 03/12/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Susan Gibson-Kueh
- Tropical Futures Institute, James Cook University, Singapore, Singapore
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11
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Onofrio MD, Egerton TA, Reece KS, Pease SKD, Sanderson MP, Iii WJ, Yeargan E, Roach A, DeMent C, Wood A, Reay WG, Place AR, Smith JL. Spatiotemporal distribution of phycotoxins and their co-occurrence within nearshore waters. HARMFUL ALGAE 2021; 103:101993. [PMID: 33980433 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2021.101993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2020] [Revised: 01/15/2021] [Accepted: 01/26/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Harmful algal blooms (HABs), varying in intensity and causative species, have historically occurred throughout the Chesapeake Bay, U.S.; however, phycotoxin data are sparse. The spatiotemporal distribution of phycotoxins was investigated using solid-phase adsorption toxin tracking (SPATT) across 12 shallow, nearshore sites within the lower Chesapeake Bay and Virginia's coastal bays over one year (2017-2018). Eight toxins, azaspiracid-1 (AZA1), azaspiracid-2 (AZA2), microcystin-LR (MC-LR), domoic acid (DA), okadaic acid (OA), dinophysistoxin-1 (DTX1), pectenotoxin-2 (PTX2), and goniodomin A (GDA) were detected in SPATT extracts. Temporally, phycotoxins were always present in the region, with at least one phycotoxin group (i.e., consisting of OA and DTX1) detected at every time point. Co-occurrence of phycotoxins was also common; two or more toxin groups were observed in 76% of the samples analyzed. Toxin maximums: 0.03 ng AZA2/g resin/day, 0.25 ng DA/g resin/day, 15 ng DTX1/g resin/day, 61 ng OA/g resin/day, 72 ng PTX2/g resin/day, and 102,050 ng GDA/g resin/day were seasonal, with peaks occurring in summer and fall. Spatially, the southern tributary and coastal bay regions harbored the highest amount of total phycotoxins on SPATT over the year, and the former contained the greatest diversity of phycotoxins. The novel detection of AZAs in the region, before a causative species has been identified, supports the use of SPATT as an explorative tool in respect to emerging threats. The lack of karlotoxin in SPATT extracts, but detection of Karlodinium veneficum by microscopy, however, emphasizes that this tool should be considered complementary to, but not a replacement for, more traditional HAB management and monitoring methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle D Onofrio
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, William & Mary, Gloucester Point, VA 23062, USA.
| | - Todd A Egerton
- Division of Shellfish Safety and Waterborne Hazards, Virginia Department of Health, Norfolk, VA 23510, USA.
| | - Kimberly S Reece
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, William & Mary, Gloucester Point, VA 23062, USA.
| | - Sarah K D Pease
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, William & Mary, Gloucester Point, VA 23062, USA.
| | - Marta P Sanderson
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, William & Mary, Gloucester Point, VA 23062, USA.
| | - William Jones Iii
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, William & Mary, Gloucester Point, VA 23062, USA.
| | - Evan Yeargan
- Division of Shellfish Safety and Waterborne Hazards, Virginia Department of Health, Norfolk, VA 23510, USA.
| | - Amanda Roach
- Division of Shellfish Safety and Waterborne Hazards, Virginia Department of Health, Norfolk, VA 23510, USA.
| | - Caroline DeMent
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, William & Mary, Gloucester Point, VA 23062, USA.
| | - Adam Wood
- Division of Shellfish Safety and Waterborne Hazards, Virginia Department of Health, Norfolk, VA 23510, USA.
| | - William G Reay
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, William & Mary, Gloucester Point, VA 23062, USA.
| | - Allen R Place
- Institute of Marine and Environmental Technology, University of Maryland Center for Environmental Sciences, Baltimore, MD 21202, USA.
| | - Juliette L Smith
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, William & Mary, Gloucester Point, VA 23062, USA.
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12
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Fiorendino JM, Smith JL, Campbell L. Growth response of Dinophysis, Mesodinium, and Teleaulax cultures to temperature, irradiance, and salinity. HARMFUL ALGAE 2020; 98:101896. [PMID: 33129454 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2020.101896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2020] [Revised: 08/21/2020] [Accepted: 08/21/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Mixotrophic Dinophysis species threaten human health and coastal economies through the production of toxins which cause diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) in humans. Novel blooms of Dinophysis acuminata and Dinophysis ovum have occurred in North American waters in recent decades, resulting in the closure of shellfish harvesting. Understanding the ecology of Dinophysis species and their prey is essential to predicting and mitigating the impact of blooms of these dinoflagellates. The growth response of two new isolates of Dinophysis species, one isolate of Mesodinium rubrum, and two strains of Teleaulax amphioxeia were evaluated at a range of temperature, salinity, and irradiance treatments to identify possible environmental drivers of Dinophysis blooms in the Gulf of Mexico. Results showed optimal growth of T. amphioxeia and M. rubrum at 24 °C, salinity 30 - 34, and irradiances between 300 and 400 µmol quanta m - 2s - 1. Optimal Dinophysis growth was observed at salinity 22 and temperatures between 18 and 24 °C. Mesodinium and both Dinophysis responded differently to experimental treatments, which may be due to the suitability of prey and different handling of kleptochloroplasts. Dinophysis bloom onset may be initiated by warming surface waters between winter and spring in the Gulf of Mexico. Toxin profiles for these two North American isolates were distinct; Dinophysis acuminata produced okadaic acid, dinophysistoxin-1, and pectenotoxin-2 while D. ovum produced only okadaic acid. Toxin per cell for D. ovum was two orders of magnitude greater than D. acuminata. Phylogenies based on the cox1 and cob genes did not distinguish these two Dinophysis species within the D. acuminata complex.
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Affiliation(s)
- James M Fiorendino
- Department of Oceanography, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Juliette L Smith
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, College of William & Mary, Gloucester Point, Virginia, 23062, USA
| | - Lisa Campbell
- Department of Oceanography, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA.
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Deeds JR, Stutts WL, Celiz MD, MacLeod J, Hamilton AE, Lewis BJ, Miller DW, Kanwit K, Smith JL, Kulis DM, McCarron P, Rauschenberg CD, Burnell CA, Archer SD, Borchert J, Lankford SK. Dihydrodinophysistoxin-1 Produced by Dinophysis norvegica in the Gulf of Maine, USA and Its Accumulation in Shellfish. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12090533. [PMID: 32825482 PMCID: PMC7551465 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12090533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2020] [Revised: 08/12/2020] [Accepted: 08/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Dihydrodinophysistoxin-1 (dihydro-DTX1, (M-H)-m/z 819.5), described previously from a marine sponge but never identified as to its biological source or described in shellfish, was detected in multiple species of commercial shellfish collected from the central coast of the Gulf of Maine, USA in 2016 and in 2018 during blooms of the dinoflagellate Dinophysis norvegica. Toxin screening by protein phosphatase inhibition (PPIA) first detected the presence of diarrhetic shellfish poisoning-like bioactivity; however, confirmatory analysis using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) failed to detect okadaic acid (OA, (M-H)-m/z 803.5), dinophysistoxin-1 (DTX1, (M-H)-m/z 817.5), or dinophysistoxin-2 (DTX2, (M-H)-m/z 803.5) in samples collected during the bloom. Bioactivity-guided fractionation followed by liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS) tentatively identified dihydro-DTX1 in the PPIA active fraction. LC-MS/MS measurements showed an absence of OA, DTX1, and DTX2, but confirmed the presence of dihydro-DTX1 in shellfish during blooms of D. norvegica in both years, with results correlating well with PPIA testing. Two laboratory cultures of D. norvegica isolated from the 2018 bloom were found to produce dihydro-DTX1 as the sole DSP toxin, confirming the source of this compound in shellfish. Estimated concentrations of dihydro-DTX1 were >0.16 ppm in multiple shellfish species (max. 1.1 ppm) during the blooms in 2016 and 2018. Assuming an equivalent potency and molar response to DTX1, the authority initiated precautionary shellfish harvesting closures in both years. To date, no illnesses have been associated with the presence of dihydro-DTX1 in shellfish in the Gulf of Maine region and studies are underway to determine the potency of this new toxin relative to the currently regulated DSP toxins in order to develop appropriate management guidance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan R. Deeds
- Office of Regulatory Science, United States Food and Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, College Park, MD 20740, USA; (W.L.S.); (M.D.C.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-(240)-402-1474
| | - Whitney L. Stutts
- Office of Regulatory Science, United States Food and Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, College Park, MD 20740, USA; (W.L.S.); (M.D.C.)
| | - Mary Dawn Celiz
- Office of Regulatory Science, United States Food and Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, College Park, MD 20740, USA; (W.L.S.); (M.D.C.)
| | - Jill MacLeod
- Maine Department of Marine Resources, West Boothbay Harbor, ME 05475, USA; (J.M.); (A.E.H.); (B.J.L.); (D.W.M.); (K.K.)
| | - Amy E. Hamilton
- Maine Department of Marine Resources, West Boothbay Harbor, ME 05475, USA; (J.M.); (A.E.H.); (B.J.L.); (D.W.M.); (K.K.)
| | - Bryant J. Lewis
- Maine Department of Marine Resources, West Boothbay Harbor, ME 05475, USA; (J.M.); (A.E.H.); (B.J.L.); (D.W.M.); (K.K.)
| | - David W. Miller
- Maine Department of Marine Resources, West Boothbay Harbor, ME 05475, USA; (J.M.); (A.E.H.); (B.J.L.); (D.W.M.); (K.K.)
| | - Kohl Kanwit
- Maine Department of Marine Resources, West Boothbay Harbor, ME 05475, USA; (J.M.); (A.E.H.); (B.J.L.); (D.W.M.); (K.K.)
| | - Juliette L. Smith
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, College of William and Mary, Gloucester Point, VA 23062, USA;
| | - David M. Kulis
- Department of Biology, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute, Woods Hole, MA 02543, USA;
| | - Pearse McCarron
- Biotoxin Metrology, National Research Council Canada, Halifax, NS B3H 3Z1, Canada;
| | - Carlton D. Rauschenberg
- Bigelow Analytical Services, Bigelow Laboratory for Ocean Sciences, East Boothbay, ME 04544, USA; (C.D.R.); (C.A.B.); (S.D.A.)
| | - Craig A. Burnell
- Bigelow Analytical Services, Bigelow Laboratory for Ocean Sciences, East Boothbay, ME 04544, USA; (C.D.R.); (C.A.B.); (S.D.A.)
| | - Stephen D. Archer
- Bigelow Analytical Services, Bigelow Laboratory for Ocean Sciences, East Boothbay, ME 04544, USA; (C.D.R.); (C.A.B.); (S.D.A.)
| | - Jerry Borchert
- Washington State Department of Health, Olympia, WA 98504, USA;
| | - Shelley K. Lankford
- Washington State Department of Health Public Health Laboratories, Shoreline, WA 98155, USA;
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