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Möller K, Tillmann U, Pöchhacker M, Varga E, Krock B, Porreca F, Koch F, Harris TM, Meunier CL. Toxic effects of the emerging Alexandrium pseudogonyaulax (Dinophyceae) on multiple trophic levels of the pelagic food web. HARMFUL ALGAE 2024; 138:102705. [PMID: 39244240 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2024.102705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2024] [Revised: 07/10/2024] [Accepted: 07/31/2024] [Indexed: 09/09/2024]
Abstract
The dinoflagellate Alexandrium pseudogonyaulax, a harmful algal bloom species, is currently appearing in increasing frequency and abundance across Northern European waters, displacing other Alexandrium species. This mixotrophic alga produces goniodomins (GDs) and bioactive extracellular substances (BECs) that may pose a threat to coastal ecosystems and other marine resources. This study demonstrated the adverse effects of A. pseudogonyaulax on four marine trophic levels, including microalgae (Rhodomonas salina), microzooplankton (Polykrikos kofoidii) and mesozooplankton (Acartia tonsa), as well as fish gill cells (RTgill-W1, Oncorhynchus mykiss), ultimately leading to enhanced mortality and cell lysis. Furthermore, cell-free supernatants collected from A. pseudogonyaulax cultures caused complete loss of metabolic activity in the RTgill-W1 cell line, indicating ichthyotoxic properties, while all tested GDs were much less toxic. In addition, cell-free supernatants of A. pseudogonyaulax led to cell lysis of R. salina, while all tested GDs were non-lytic. Finally, reduced egg hatching rates of A. tonsa eggs exposed to cell-free supernatants of A. pseudogonyaulax and impaired mobility of P. kofoidii and A. tonsa exposed to A. pseudogonyaulax were also observed. Altogether, bioassay results suggest that the toxicity of A. pseudogonyaulax is mainly driven by BECs and not by GDs, although further research into factors modulating the lytic activity of Alexandrium spp. are needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristof Möller
- Section Ecological Chemistry, Alfred-Wegener-Institut Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Bremerhaven, Germany.
| | - Urban Tillmann
- Section Ecological Chemistry, Alfred-Wegener-Institut Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Magdalena Pöchhacker
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria; Unit Food Hygiene and Technology, Centre for Food Science and Veterinary Public Health, Clinical Department for Farm Animals and Food System Science, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Vienna, Austria; Vienna Doctoral School in Chemistry (DoSChem), Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Elisabeth Varga
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria; Unit Food Hygiene and Technology, Centre for Food Science and Veterinary Public Health, Clinical Department for Farm Animals and Food System Science, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Bernd Krock
- Section Ecological Chemistry, Alfred-Wegener-Institut Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Francesco Porreca
- Section Ecological Chemistry, Alfred-Wegener-Institut Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Florian Koch
- Section Ecological Chemistry, Alfred-Wegener-Institut Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Thomas M Harris
- Department of Chemistry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37235, USA
| | - Cédric L Meunier
- Section Shelf Sea Ecology, Alfred-Wegener-Institut Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Helgoland, Germany
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Alonso-Rodríguez R, Pichardo-Velarde JG. Effects of temperature and nutrients on growth and toxicity of Alexandrium affine from southeastern Gulf of California. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2024; 203:116464. [PMID: 38759464 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2024.116464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2023] [Revised: 04/28/2024] [Accepted: 05/03/2024] [Indexed: 05/19/2024]
Abstract
An Alexandrium affine strain (AAJQ-1) from San José Island, Gulf of California was characterized for growth and toxicology. Fivefold of f/2 + Se cultures were incubated for 34 days in a temperature gradient (21-29 °C). Aliquots were collected every third day for cell counting, toxin determination, and nutrient analyses. In this study ELISA method was used to evaluate the PSP toxin production due to the lower detection limit than the HPLC method. The highest cell density (6724 cells mL-1) and growth rate (0.22 day-1) were obtained at 27 °C and they were related to temperature in all treatments. Cell density showed negative correlation with nitrate at temperatures ≥23 °C, and with orthophosphate 27 °C, furthermore, these correlations promote the toxin production (0.05-0.45 fmol STX cell-1); beyond that nitrite at high temperature seems to promote toxin production, which has not been sufficiently documented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosalba Alonso-Rodríguez
- Unidad Académica Mazatlán, Instituto de Ciencias del Mar y Limnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Av. Joel Montes Camarena s/n, Mazatlán, Sinaloa 82040, Mexico.
| | - Jorge Gerardo Pichardo-Velarde
- Facultad de Ciencias del Mar (FACIMAR), Universidad Autónoma de Sinaloa (UAS), Paseo Claussen S/N, Centro, Mazatlán, Sinaloa 82000, Mexico
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Bui QTN, Kim HS, Ki JS. Polyphyletic origin of saxitoxin biosynthesis genes in the marine dinoflagellate Alexandrium revealed by comparative transcriptomics. HARMFUL ALGAE 2024; 134:102620. [PMID: 38705616 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2024.102620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2023] [Revised: 02/26/2024] [Accepted: 03/15/2024] [Indexed: 05/07/2024]
Abstract
The marine dinoflagellate Alexandrium is known to form harmful algal blooms, and at least 14 species within the genus can produce saxitoxins (STXs). STX biosynthesis genes (sxt) are individually revealed in toxic dinoflagellates; however, the evolutionary history remains controversial. Herein, we determined the transcriptome sequences of toxic Alexandrium (A. catenella and A. pacificum) and non-toxic Alexandrium (A. fraterculus and A. fragae) and characterized their sxt by focusing on evolutionary events and STX production. Comparative transcriptome analysis revealed higher homology of the sxt in toxic Alexandrium than in non-toxic species. Notably, non-toxic Alexandrium spp. were found to have lost two sxt core genes, namely sxtA4 and sxtG. Expression levels of 28 transcripts related to eight sxt core genes showed that sxtA, sxtG, and sxtI were relatively high (>1.5) in the toxic group compared to the non-toxic group. In contrast, the non-toxic group showed high expression levels in sxtU (1.9) and sxtD (1.7). Phylogenetic tree comparisons revealed distinct evolutionary patterns between 28S rDNA and sxtA, sxtB, sxtI, sxtD, and sxtU. However, similar topology was observed between 28S rDNA, sxtS, and sxtH/T. In the sxtB and sxtI phylogeny trees, toxic Alexandrium and cyanobacteria were clustered together, separating from non-toxic species. These suggest that Alexandrium may acquire sxt genes independently via horizontal gene transfer from toxic cyanobacteria and other multiple sources, demonstrating monocistronic transcripts of sxt in dinoflagellates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quynh Thi Nhu Bui
- Department of Life Science, Sangmyung University, Seoul 03016, South Korea
| | - Han-Sol Kim
- Department of Life Science, Sangmyung University, Seoul 03016, South Korea
| | - Jang-Seu Ki
- Department of Life Science, Sangmyung University, Seoul 03016, South Korea.
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Montuori E, De Luca D, Penna A, Stalberga D, Lauritano C. Alexandrium spp.: From Toxicity to Potential Biotechnological Benefits. Mar Drugs 2023; 22:31. [PMID: 38248656 PMCID: PMC10821459 DOI: 10.3390/md22010031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2023] [Revised: 12/27/2023] [Accepted: 12/28/2023] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Many dinoflagellates of the genus Alexandrium are well known for being responsible for harmful algal blooms (HABs), producing potent toxins that cause damages to other marine organisms, aquaculture, fishery, tourism, as well as induce human intoxications and even death after consumption of contaminated shellfish or fish. In this review, we summarize potential bioprospecting associated to the genus Alexandrium, including which Alexandrium spp. produce metabolites with anticancer, antimicrobial, antiviral, as well as anti-Alzheimer applications. When available, we report their mechanisms of action and targets. We also discuss recent progress on the identification of secondary metabolites with biological properties favorable to human health and aquaculture. Altogether, this information highlights the importance of studying which culturing conditions induce the activation of enzymatic pathways responsible for the synthesis of bioactive metabolites. It also suggests considering and comparing clones collected in different locations for toxin monitoring and marine bioprospecting. This review can be of interest not only for the scientific community, but also for the entire population and industries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleonora Montuori
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, Viale F. Stagno d’Alcontres 31, 98166 Messina, Italy;
- Department of Ecosustainable Marine Biotechnology, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Via Acton 55, 80133 Napoli, Italy
| | - Daniele De Luca
- Research Infrastructure for Marine Biological Resources Department, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Villa Comunale, 80121 Napoli, Italy;
| | - Antonella Penna
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences, University of Urbino, Campus E. Mattei, 61029 Urbino, Italy;
| | - Darta Stalberga
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Division of Clinical Chemistry and Pharmacology, Linköping University, SE-58183 Linköping, Sweden;
| | - Chiara Lauritano
- Department of Ecosustainable Marine Biotechnology, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Via Acton 55, 80133 Napoli, Italy
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Abdullah N, Teng ST, Hanifah AH, Law IK, Tan TH, Krock B, Harris TM, Nagai S, Lim PT, Tillmann U, Leaw CP. Thecal plate morphology, molecular phylogeny, and toxin analyses reveal two novel species of Alexandrium (Dinophyceae) and their potential for toxin production. HARMFUL ALGAE 2023; 127:102475. [PMID: 37544675 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2023.102475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2023] [Revised: 06/22/2023] [Accepted: 06/29/2023] [Indexed: 08/08/2023]
Abstract
This study describes two novel species of marine dinophytes in the genus Alexandrium. Morphological characteristics and phylogenetic analyses support the placement of the new taxa, herein designated as Alexandrium limii sp. nov. and A. ogatae sp. nov. Alexandrium limii, a species closely related to A. taylorii, is distinguished by having a shorter 2'/4' suture length, narrower plates 1' and 6'', with larger length: width ratios, and by the position of the ventral pore (Vp). Alexandrium ogatae is distinguishable with its metasert plate 1' having almost parallel lateral margins, and by lacking a Vp. Production of paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs), cycloimines, and goniodomins (GDs) in clonal cultures of A. ogatae, A. limii, and A. taylorii were examined analytically and the results showed that all strains contained GDs, with GDA as major variants (6-14 pg cell-1) for all strains except the Japanese strain of A. limii, which exclusively had a desmethyl variant of GDA (1.4-7.3 pg cell-1). None of the strains contained detectable levels of PSTs and cycloimines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nursyahida Abdullah
- Faculty of Resource Science and Technology, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, 94300, Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia
| | - Sing Tung Teng
- Faculty of Resource Science and Technology, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, 94300, Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia.
| | - Afiqah Hamilton Hanifah
- Faculty of Resource Science and Technology, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, 94300, Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia
| | - Ing Kuo Law
- Bachok Marine Research Station, Institute of Ocean and Earth Sciences, University of Malaya, 16310 Bachok, Kelantan, Malaysia
| | - Toh Hii Tan
- Department of Animal Science and Fishery, Faculty of Agricultural Science and Forestry, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 97008, Bintulu, Sarawak, Malaysia
| | - Bernd Krock
- Section Ecological Chemistry, Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, 27570, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Thomas M Harris
- Department of Chemistry, Vanderbilt, University, Nashville, Tennessee, 37235, United States; Virginia Institute of Marine Science (VIMS), Gloucester Point, Virginia, 23062, United States
| | - Satoshi Nagai
- Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa 236-8648, Japan
| | - Po Teen Lim
- Bachok Marine Research Station, Institute of Ocean and Earth Sciences, University of Malaya, 16310 Bachok, Kelantan, Malaysia
| | - Urban Tillmann
- Section Ecological Chemistry, Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, 27570, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Chui Pin Leaw
- Bachok Marine Research Station, Institute of Ocean and Earth Sciences, University of Malaya, 16310 Bachok, Kelantan, Malaysia.
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Harris CM, Hintze L, Gaillard S, Tanniou S, Small H, Reece KS, Tillmann U, Krock B, Harris TM. Mass spectrometric characterization of the seco acid formed by cleavage of the macrolide ring of the algal metabolite goniodomin A. Toxicon 2023; 231:107159. [PMID: 37210046 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2023.107159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2023] [Revised: 05/10/2023] [Accepted: 05/11/2023] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Goniodomin A (GDA) is a polyketide macrolide produced by multiple species of the marine dinoflagellate genus Alexandrium. GDA is unusual in that it undergoes cleavage of the ester linkage under mild conditions to give mixtures of seco acids (GDA-sa). Ring-opening occurs even in pure water although the rate of cleavage accelerates with increasing pH. The seco acids exist as a dynamic mixture of structural and stereo isomers which is only partially separable by chromatography. Freshly prepared seco acids show only end absorption in the UV spectrum but a gradual bathochromic change occurs, which is consistent with formation of α,β-unsaturated ketones. Use of NMR and crystallography is precluded for structure elucidation. Nevertheless, structural assignments can be made by mass spectrometric techniques. Retro-Diels-Alder fragmentation has been of value for independently characterizing the head and tail regions of the seco acids. The chemical transformations of GDA revealed in the current studies help clarify observations made on laboratory cultures and in the natural environment. GDA has been found to reside mainly within the algal cells while the seco acids are mainly external with the transformation of GDA to the seco acids occurring largely outside the cells. This relationship, plus the fact that GDA is short-lived in growth medium whereas GDA-sa is long-lived, suggests that the toxicological properties of GDA-sa in its natural environment are more important for the survival of the Alexandrium spp. than those of GDA. The structural similarity of GDA-sa to that of monensin is noted. Monensin has strong antimicrobial properties, attributed to its ability to transport sodium ions across cell membranes. We propose that toxic properties of GDA may primarily be due to the ability of GDA-sa to mediate metal ion transport across cell membranes of predator organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Constance M Harris
- Department of Chemistry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37235, USA
| | - Luisa Hintze
- Alfred Wegener Institut-Helmholtz Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung (AWI), 27570, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Sylvain Gaillard
- Department of Aquatic Health Sciences, Virginia Institute of Marine Science (VIMS), William & Mary, Gloucester Point, VA, 23062, USA
| | - Simon Tanniou
- Ifremer, PHYTOX, Laboratoire METALG, F-44000, Nantes, France
| | - Hamish Small
- Department of Aquatic Health Sciences, Virginia Institute of Marine Science (VIMS), William & Mary, Gloucester Point, VA, 23062, USA
| | - Kimberly S Reece
- Department of Aquatic Health Sciences, Virginia Institute of Marine Science (VIMS), William & Mary, Gloucester Point, VA, 23062, USA
| | - Urban Tillmann
- Alfred Wegener Institut-Helmholtz Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung (AWI), 27570, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Bernd Krock
- Alfred Wegener Institut-Helmholtz Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung (AWI), 27570, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Thomas M Harris
- Department of Chemistry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37235, USA.
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Ramírez FJ, Guinder VA, Ferronato C, Krock B. Increase in records of toxic phytoplankton and associated toxins in water samples in the Patagonian Shelf (Argentina) over 40 years of field surveys. HARMFUL ALGAE 2022; 118:102317. [PMID: 36195419 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2022.102317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2022] [Revised: 08/19/2022] [Accepted: 08/29/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Historical records (1980-2018) of potentially toxic phytoplankton and phycotoxins on the Argentine Continental Shelf (35°S-56.5°S) and adjacent ocean waters were systematically reviewed from scientific literature to assess their abundance and diversity over spatial and temporal scales. Records increased from 124 in the period 1980-1992 to 638 in 2006-2018, and the scanned area expanded from coastal to offshore waters including the shelf-break front. Alexandrium was the most reported genus (54%) during 1980-1992 and Pseudo-nitzschia (52%) during 1993-2005. By 2006-2018, a higher diversity was documented: Alexandrium (20%), Dinophysis (32%), Pseudo-nitzschia (31%), and the most recently described potentially toxic dinoflagellates of the family Amphidomataceae (8%). Likewise, a wider spectrum of phycotoxins was documented in the last decade, with lipophilic (LSTs) and paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs) as the most recorded. Increased records are related to intensified monitoring, more detailed taxonomic analyses and more sensitive chemical techniques for marine biotoxin detection. This quantitative assessment brings light to the widespread occurrence of HABs along contrasting areas of the Patagonian Shelf and sets the basis for ecosystem risk evaluation. Moreover, comparison of toxic phytoplankton reported in the SW Atlantic with those in similar temperate seas in the North Atlantic and the Pacific Ocean, disclose ocean basin differences in strain toxicity of A. ostenfeldii, D. tripos and Azadinium species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando J Ramírez
- Instituto Argentino de Oceanografía (IADO), Universidad Nacional del Sur (UNS), B8000FWB Bahía Blanca. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Argentina.
| | - Valeria A Guinder
- Instituto Argentino de Oceanografía (IADO), Universidad Nacional del Sur (UNS), B8000FWB Bahía Blanca. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Argentina.
| | - Carola Ferronato
- Instituto Argentino de Oceanografía (IADO), Universidad Nacional del Sur (UNS), B8000FWB Bahía Blanca. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Argentina
| | - Bernd Krock
- Alfred-Wegener-Institut Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Bremerhaven, Germany
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Abstract
Covering: 2020This review covers the literature published in 2020 for marine natural products (MNPs), with 757 citations (747 for the period January to December 2020) referring to compounds isolated from marine microorganisms and phytoplankton, green, brown and red algae, sponges, cnidarians, bryozoans, molluscs, tunicates, echinoderms, mangroves and other intertidal plants and microorganisms. The emphasis is on new compounds (1407 in 420 papers for 2020), together with the relevant biological activities, source organisms and country of origin. Pertinent reviews, biosynthetic studies, first syntheses, and syntheses that led to the revision of structures or stereochemistries, have been included. A meta analysis of bioactivity data relating to new MNPs reported over the last five years is also presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony R Carroll
- School of Environment and Science, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Australia. .,Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Brent R Copp
- School of Chemical Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Rohan A Davis
- Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia.,School of Enivironment and Science, Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Robert A Keyzers
- Centre for Biodiscovery, School of Chemical and Physical Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand
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Long M, Krock B, Castrec J, Tillmann U. Unknown Extracellular and Bioactive Metabolites of the Genus Alexandrium: A Review of Overlooked Toxins. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:905. [PMID: 34941742 PMCID: PMC8703713 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13120905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2021] [Revised: 12/08/2021] [Accepted: 12/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Various species of Alexandrium can produce a number of bioactive compounds, e.g., paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs), spirolides, gymnodimines, goniodomins, and also uncharacterised bioactive extracellular compounds (BECs). The latter metabolites are released into the environment and affect a large range of organisms (from protists to fishes and mammalian cell lines). These compounds mediate allelochemical interactions, have anti-grazing and anti-parasitic activities, and have a potentially strong structuring role for the dynamic of Alexandrium blooms. In many studies evaluating the effects of Alexandrium on marine organisms, only the classical toxins were reported and the involvement of BECs was not considered. A lack of information on the presence/absence of BECs in experimental strains is likely the cause of contrasting results in the literature that render impossible a distinction between PSTs and BECs effects. We review the knowledge on Alexandrium BEC, (i.e., producing species, target cells, physiological effects, detection methods and molecular candidates). Overall, we highlight the need to identify the nature of Alexandrium BECs and urge further research on the chemical interactions according to their ecological importance in the planktonic chemical warfare and due to their potential collateral damage to a wide range of organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc Long
- IFREMER, Centre de Brest, DYNECO Pelagos, 29280 Plouzané, France;
| | - Bernd Krock
- Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany;
| | - Justine Castrec
- University Brest, CNRS, IRD, Ifremer, LEMAR, 29280 Plouzané, France;
- Station de Recherches Sous-Marines et Océanographiques (STARESO), Punta Revellata, BP33, 20260 Calvi, France
| | - Urban Tillmann
- Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany;
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Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP) in Mussels from the Eastern Cantabrian Sea: Toxicity, Toxin Profile, and Co-Occurrence with Cyclic Imines. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13110761. [PMID: 34822545 PMCID: PMC8617803 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13110761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2021] [Revised: 10/25/2021] [Accepted: 10/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In the late autumn of 2018 and 2019, some samples taken by the official monitoring systems of Cantabria and the Basque Country were found to be paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP)-positive using a mouse bioassay. To confirm the presence of PSP toxins and to obtain their profile, these samples were analyzed using an optimized version of the Official Method AOAC 2005.06 and using LC–MS/MS (HILIC). The presence of some PSP toxins (PSTs) in that geographical area (~600 km of coast) was confirmed for the first time. The estimated toxicities ranged from 170 to 983 µg STXdiHCl eq.·kg−1 for the AOAC 2005.06 method and from 150 to 1094 µg STXdiHCl eq.·kg−1 for the LC–MS/MS method, with a good correlation between both methods (r2 = 0.94). Most samples contained STX, GTX2,3, and GTX1,4, and some also had NEO and dcGTX2. All of the PSP-positive samples also contained gymnodimine A, with the concentrations of the two groups of toxins being significantly correlated. The PSP toxin profiles suggest that a species of the genus Alexandrium was likely the causative agent. The presence of gymnodimine A suggests that A. ostenfeldii could be involved, but the contribution of a mixture of Alexandrium species cannot be ruled out.
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Shin HH, Li Z, Réveillon D, Rovillon GA, Mertens KN, Hess P, Kim HJ, Lee J, Lee KW, Kim D, Park BS, Hwang J, Seo MH, Lim WA. Centrodinium punctatum (Dinophyceae) produces significant levels of saxitoxin and related analogs. HARMFUL ALGAE 2020; 100:101923. [PMID: 33298361 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2020.101923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2020] [Revised: 09/27/2020] [Accepted: 10/15/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Centrodinium punctatum is a fusiform dinoflagellate with a global marine distribution. Due to a close phylogenetic relationship of one C. punctatum strain to Alexandrium species, toxin production of this C. punctatum strain was assessed using liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry. The paralytic shellfish toxin (PST) profile of C. punctatum was dominated by six analogs, i.e. STX (30%), GTX-1 (20%) and neoSTX (24%), followed by GTX-2 (9%), GTX-4 (9%) and GTX-3 (8%); deoxy-STX was also putatively identified while no gymnodimines, spirolides or goniodomins were detected. This is the first record of C. punctatum producing saxitoxins. The estimated cellular toxicity was rather elevated, between 91 and 212 pg cell-1 (or 259 and 601 fmol cell-1). When considering the toxicity equivalent factors, results suggest that this species can produce high cellular toxicity compared to other STX-producing dinoflagellates. Morphological details of the sulcal area and the hypotheca of Centrodinium punctatum were re-examined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM); this revealed that in the sulcal area, the left posterior sulcal plate (Ssp) is larger and longer than the left posterior sulcal plate and extended into the hypotheca. Based on the morphological observation, a revised interpretation of the sulcus and hypotheca is proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyeon Ho Shin
- Library of Marine Samples, Korea Institute of Ocean Science & Technology, Geoje 656-830, Republic of Korea.
| | - Zhun Li
- Biological Resource Center/Korean Collection for Type Cultures (KCTC), Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Jeonbuk 56212, Republic of Korea
| | - Damien Réveillon
- Ifremer, DYNECO, Laboratoire Phycotoxines, rue de l'Ile d'Yeu, Nantes 03, F-44311 France
| | | | - Kenneth Neil Mertens
- Ifremer, LITTORAL, LER BO, Station de Biologie Marine, Place de la Croix, BP40537, F-29185 Concarneau Cedex, France
| | - Philipp Hess
- Ifremer, DYNECO, Laboratoire Phycotoxines, rue de l'Ile d'Yeu, Nantes 03, F-44311 France
| | - Hyun Jung Kim
- Library of Marine Samples, Korea Institute of Ocean Science & Technology, Geoje 656-830, Republic of Korea
| | - Jihoon Lee
- Marine Biotechnology Research Center, Korea Institute of Ocean Science & Technology, Busan 49111, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyun-Woo Lee
- Marine Biotechnology Research Center, Korea Institute of Ocean Science & Technology, Busan 49111, Republic of Korea
| | - Daekyung Kim
- Daegu Center, Korea Basic Science Institute (KBSI), Daegu, Republic of Korea
| | - Bum Soo Park
- Marine Ecosystem Research Center, Korea Institute of Ocean Science & Technology, Busan 49111, Republic of Korea
| | - Jinik Hwang
- Environment and Resource Convergence Center, Advanced Institute of Convergence Technology, Suwon 16229, Republic of Korea
| | - Min Ho Seo
- Marine Ecology Research Center, Yeosu 59697, Republic of Korea
| | - Weol Ae Lim
- National Institute of Fisheries Science, Busan, 619-705, Republic of Korea
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Harris CM, Reece KS, Harris TM. Revisiting the toxin profile of Alexandrium pseudogonyaulax; Formation of a desmethyl congener of goniodomin A. Toxicon 2020; 188:122-126. [PMID: 32991938 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2020.09.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2020] [Revised: 09/02/2020] [Accepted: 09/25/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
During a survey of the production of goniodomin A (GDA) by Alexandrium pseudogonyaulax in Danish coastal waters, Krock et al. (2018) obtained mass spectral evidence for the presence of a truncated congener, herein termed GD754, having a molecular weight 14 Da lower than GDA and assigned it as goniodomin B (GDB). An erroneous structure of GDB involving deletion of a methylene group between rings B and D had previously been reported by Espiña et al. (2016) but without experimental details. HPLC properties reported by Krock for GD754 point to it being a homolog of GDA. Comparison of mass spectral fragmentation data reported for GD754 with fragmentation data for GDA, show it to be a truncated form of GDA with the deletion involving a CH2 group from ring F or one of the two methyl substituents on ring F, not elsewhere on the molecule. On biosynthetic grounds, the GD754 congener is proposed to be 34-desmethyl-GDA. Further experimental work will be required to confirm this hypothesis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kimberly S Reece
- Department of Aquatic Health Sciences, Virginia Institute of Marine Science, William & Mary, P.O. Box 1346, Gloucester Point, VA, 23062, USA
| | - Thomas M Harris
- Department of Chemistry,Vanderbilt University,Nashville,TN, 37235,USA; Department of Aquatic Health Sciences, Virginia Institute of Marine Science, William & Mary, P.O. Box 1346, Gloucester Point, VA, 23062, USA.
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