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Castrec J, Pillet M, Receveur J, Fontaine Q, Le Floch S, Churlaud C, Lejeune P, Gobert S, Thomas H, Marengo M. Active and passive biomonitoring of trace elements, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and polychlorinated biphenyls in small Mediterranean harbours. Mar Pollut Bull 2023; 187:114578. [PMID: 36645999 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2023.114578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2022] [Revised: 12/29/2022] [Accepted: 01/01/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Pollution particularly affects coastal ecosystems due to their proximity to anthropic sources. Among those environments, harbours are subjected to marine traffic but also to accidental and chronic pollution. These areas are thus exposed to complex mixtures of contaminants such as trace elements and organic contaminants which can impact marine species, habitats, and ecosystem services. The monitoring of these compounds is thus a crucial issue for assessment of environmental health. In this context, the aim of the present work was to evaluate the chemical contamination of harbours in Corsica (NW Mediterranean) by measuring the bioaccumulation of trace elements, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and polychlorinated biphenyls in mussels, limpets, and sea cucumbers. The human health risks associated with seafood consumption were also assessed. Results reveal a relatively low contamination in the Corsican harbours studied compared to larger Mediterranean ports and suggest that the potential health risk for consumers eating seafood is low.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justine Castrec
- Station de Recherches Sous-marines et Océanographiques (STARESO), Punta Revellata, BP33, 20260 Calvi, France.
| | - Marion Pillet
- Station de Recherches Sous-marines et Océanographiques (STARESO), Punta Revellata, BP33, 20260 Calvi, France
| | | | - Quentin Fontaine
- Station de Recherches Sous-marines et Océanographiques (STARESO), Punta Revellata, BP33, 20260 Calvi, France
| | | | - Carine Churlaud
- Littoral Environnement et Sociétés (LIENSs), UMRi 7266, CNRS- La Rochelle Université, 2 rue Olympe de Gouges, F-17042 La Rochelle Cedex 01, France
| | - Pierre Lejeune
- Station de Recherches Sous-marines et Océanographiques (STARESO), Punta Revellata, BP33, 20260 Calvi, France
| | - Sylvie Gobert
- Station de Recherches Sous-marines et Océanographiques (STARESO), Punta Revellata, BP33, 20260 Calvi, France; Université de Liège, Centre MARE, Laboratoire d'Océanologie, Sart Tilman, B6c, 4000 Liège, Belgium
| | - Hélène Thomas
- Littoral Environnement et Sociétés (LIENSs), UMRi 7266, CNRS- La Rochelle Université, 2 rue Olympe de Gouges, F-17042 La Rochelle Cedex 01, France
| | - Michel Marengo
- Station de Recherches Sous-marines et Océanographiques (STARESO), Punta Revellata, BP33, 20260 Calvi, France
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Long M, Krock B, Castrec J, Tillmann U. Unknown Extracellular and Bioactive Metabolites of the Genus Alexandrium: A Review of Overlooked Toxins. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:905. [PMID: 34941742 PMCID: PMC8703713 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13120905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2021] [Revised: 12/08/2021] [Accepted: 12/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Various species of Alexandrium can produce a number of bioactive compounds, e.g., paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs), spirolides, gymnodimines, goniodomins, and also uncharacterised bioactive extracellular compounds (BECs). The latter metabolites are released into the environment and affect a large range of organisms (from protists to fishes and mammalian cell lines). These compounds mediate allelochemical interactions, have anti-grazing and anti-parasitic activities, and have a potentially strong structuring role for the dynamic of Alexandrium blooms. In many studies evaluating the effects of Alexandrium on marine organisms, only the classical toxins were reported and the involvement of BECs was not considered. A lack of information on the presence/absence of BECs in experimental strains is likely the cause of contrasting results in the literature that render impossible a distinction between PSTs and BECs effects. We review the knowledge on Alexandrium BEC, (i.e., producing species, target cells, physiological effects, detection methods and molecular candidates). Overall, we highlight the need to identify the nature of Alexandrium BECs and urge further research on the chemical interactions according to their ecological importance in the planktonic chemical warfare and due to their potential collateral damage to a wide range of organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc Long
- IFREMER, Centre de Brest, DYNECO Pelagos, 29280 Plouzané, France;
| | - Bernd Krock
- Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany;
| | - Justine Castrec
- University Brest, CNRS, IRD, Ifremer, LEMAR, 29280 Plouzané, France;
- Station de Recherches Sous-Marines et Océanographiques (STARESO), Punta Revellata, BP33, 20260 Calvi, France
| | - Urban Tillmann
- Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany;
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Castrec J, Fabioux C, Le Goïc N, Boulais M, Soudant P, Hégaret H. The toxic dinoflagellate Alexandrium minutum affects oyster gamete health and fertilization potential. Mar Environ Res 2021; 169:105401. [PMID: 34217094 DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2021.105401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2021] [Revised: 06/16/2021] [Accepted: 06/18/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Dinoflagellates from the globally distributed genus Alexandrium are known to produce both paralytic shellfish toxins (PST) and uncharacterized bioactive extracellular compounds (BEC) with allelopathic, ichthyotoxic, hemolytic and cytotoxic activities. In France, blooms of Alexandrium minutum appear generally during the spawning period of most bivalves. These blooms could therefore alter gametes and/or larval development of bivalves, causing severe issues for ecologically and economically important species, such as the Pacific oyster Crassostrea (=Magallana) gigas. The aim of this work was to test the effects of three strains of A. minutum producing either only PST, only BEC, or both PST and BEC upon oyster gametes, and potential consequences on fertilization success. Oocytes and spermatozoa were exposed in vitro for 2 h to a range of environmentally realistic A. minutum concentrations (10-2.5 × 104 cells mL-1). Following exposure, gamete viability and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production were assessed by flow cytometry, spermatozoa motility and fertilization capacities of both spermatozoa and oocytes were analysed by microscopy. Viability and fertilization capacity of spermatozoa and oocytes were drastically reduced following exposure to 2.5 × 104 cells mL-1 of A. minutum. The BEC-producing strain was the most potent strain decreasing spermatozoa motility, increasing ROS production of oocytes, and decreasing fertilization, from the concentration of 2.5 × 103 cells mL-1. This study highlights the significant cellular toxicity of the BEC produced by A. minutum on oyster gametes. Physical contact between gametes and motile thecate A. minutum cells may also contribute to alter oyster gamete integrity. These results suggest that oyster gametes exposure to A. minutum blooms could affect oyster fertility and reproduction success.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justine Castrec
- Univ Brest, CNRS, IRD, Ifremer, LEMAR, F-29280 Plouzane, France.
| | | | - Nelly Le Goïc
- Univ Brest, CNRS, IRD, Ifremer, LEMAR, F-29280 Plouzane, France
| | - Myrina Boulais
- Univ Brest, CNRS, IRD, Ifremer, LEMAR, F-29280 Plouzane, France
| | | | - Hélène Hégaret
- Univ Brest, CNRS, IRD, Ifremer, LEMAR, F-29280 Plouzane, France
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Castrec J, Hégaret H, Huber M, Le Grand J, Huvet A, Tallec K, Boulais M, Soudant P, Fabioux C. The toxic dinoflagellate Alexandrium minutum impairs the performance of oyster embryos and larvae. Harmful Algae 2020; 92:101744. [PMID: 32113611 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2020.101744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2019] [Revised: 11/21/2019] [Accepted: 01/18/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The dinoflagellate genus Alexandrium comprises species that produce highly potent neurotoxins known as paralytic shellfish toxins (PST), and bioactive extracellular compounds (BEC) of unknown structure and ecological significance. The toxic bloom-forming species, Alexandrium minutum, is distributed worldwide and adversely affects many bivalves including the commercially and ecologically important Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas. In France, recurrent A. minutum blooms can co-occur with C. gigas spawning and larval development, and may endanger recruitment and population renewal. The present study explores how A. minutum affects oyster early development by exposing embryos and larvae, under controlled laboratory conditions, to two strains of A. minutum, producing only BEC or both PST and BEC. Results highlight the major role of BEC in A. minutum toxicity upon oyster development. The BEC strain caused lysis of embryos, the most sensitive stage to A. minutum toxicity among planktonic life stages. In addition, the non-PST-producing A. minutum strain inhibited hatching, disrupted larval swimming behavior, feeding, growth, and induced drastic decreases in survival and settlement of umbonate and eyed larvae (9 and 68 %, respectively). The findings indicated PST accumulation in oyster larvae (e.g. umbonate stages), possibly impairing development and settlement of larvae in response to the PST-producing strain. This work provides evidences that A. minutum blooms could hamper settlement of shellfish.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justine Castrec
- Univ Brest, CNRS, IRD, Ifremer, LEMAR, F-29280, Plouzane, France
| | - Hélène Hégaret
- Univ Brest, CNRS, IRD, Ifremer, LEMAR, F-29280, Plouzane, France
| | - Matthias Huber
- Ifremer, Univ Brest, CNRS, IRD, LEMAR, F-29280, Plouzane, France
| | | | - Arnaud Huvet
- Ifremer, Univ Brest, CNRS, IRD, LEMAR, F-29280, Plouzane, France
| | - Kevin Tallec
- Ifremer, Univ Brest, CNRS, IRD, LEMAR, F-29280, Plouzane, France
| | - Myrina Boulais
- Univ Brest, CNRS, IRD, Ifremer, LEMAR, F-29280, Plouzane, France
| | - Philippe Soudant
- Univ Brest, CNRS, IRD, Ifremer, LEMAR, F-29280, Plouzane, France
| | - Caroline Fabioux
- Univ Brest, CNRS, IRD, Ifremer, LEMAR, F-29280, Plouzane, France.
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Castrec J, Hégaret H, Alunno-Bruscia M, Picard M, Soudant P, Petton B, Boulais M, Suquet M, Quéau I, Ratiskol D, Foulon V, Le Goïc N, Fabioux C. The dinoflagellate Alexandrium minutum affects development of the oyster Crassostrea gigas, through parental or direct exposure. Environ Pollut 2019; 246:827-836. [PMID: 30623839 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2018.11.084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2018] [Revised: 11/20/2018] [Accepted: 11/26/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Harmful algal blooms are a threat to aquatic organisms and coastal ecosystems. Among harmful species, the widespread distributed genus Alexandrium is of global importance. This genus is well-known for the synthesis of paralytic shellfish toxins which are toxic for humans through the consumption of contaminated shellfish. While the effects of Alexandrium species upon the physiology of bivalves are now well documented, consequences on reproduction remain poorly studied. In France, Alexandrium minutum blooms have been recurrent for the last decades, generally appearing during the reproduction season of most bivalves including the oyster Crassostrea gigas. These blooms could not only affect gametogenesis but also spawning, larval development or juvenile recruitment. This study assesses the effect of toxic A. minutum blooms on C. gigas reproduction. Adult oysters were experimentally exposed to A. minutum, at environmentally realistic concentrations (102 to 103 cells mL-1) for two months during their gametogenesis and a control group, not exposed to A. minutum was fed with a non-toxic dinoflagellate. To determine both consequences to next generation and direct effects of A. minutum exposure on larvae, the embryo-larval development of subsequent offspring was conducted with and without A. minutum exposure at 102 cells mL-1. Effects at each stage of the reproduction were investigated on ecophysiological parameters, cellular responses, and offspring development. Broodstock exposed to A. minutum produced spermatozoa with decreased motility and larvae of smaller size which showed higher mortalities during settlement. Embryo-larval exposure to A. minutum significantly reduced growth and settlement of larvae compared to non-exposed offspring. This detrimental consequence on larval growth was stronger in larvae derived from control parents compared to offspring from exposed parents. This study provides evidence that A. minutum blooms, whether they occur during gametogenesis, spawning or larval development, can either affect gamete quality and/or larval development of C. gigas, thus potentially impacting oyster recruitment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justine Castrec
- LEMAR UMR 6539 CNRS/UBO/IRD/Ifremer, IUEM, rue Dumont d'Urville, 29280, Plouzané, France
| | - Hélène Hégaret
- LEMAR UMR 6539 CNRS/UBO/IRD/Ifremer, IUEM, rue Dumont d'Urville, 29280, Plouzané, France
| | - Marianne Alunno-Bruscia
- Ifremer, LEMAR UMR 6539 CNRS/UBO/IRD/Ifremer, Centre de Bretagne, CS 10070, 29280, Plouzané, France
| | - Maïlys Picard
- LEMAR UMR 6539 CNRS/UBO/IRD/Ifremer, IUEM, rue Dumont d'Urville, 29280, Plouzané, France
| | - Philippe Soudant
- LEMAR UMR 6539 CNRS/UBO/IRD/Ifremer, IUEM, rue Dumont d'Urville, 29280, Plouzané, France
| | - Bruno Petton
- Ifremer, LEMAR UMR 6539 CNRS/UBO/IRD/Ifremer, Centre de Bretagne, CS 10070, 29280, Plouzané, France
| | - Myrina Boulais
- LEMAR UMR 6539 CNRS/UBO/IRD/Ifremer, IUEM, rue Dumont d'Urville, 29280, Plouzané, France; University of North Carolina Wilmington, Center for Marine Science, 5600 Marvin K. Moss Lane, Wilmington, NC, 28409, USA
| | - Marc Suquet
- Ifremer, LEMAR UMR 6539 CNRS/UBO/IRD/Ifremer, Centre de Bretagne, CS 10070, 29280, Plouzané, France
| | - Isabelle Quéau
- Ifremer, LEMAR UMR 6539 CNRS/UBO/IRD/Ifremer, Centre de Bretagne, CS 10070, 29280, Plouzané, France
| | - Dominique Ratiskol
- Ifremer, LEMAR UMR 6539 CNRS/UBO/IRD/Ifremer, Centre de Bretagne, CS 10070, 29280, Plouzané, France
| | - Valentin Foulon
- LEMAR UMR 6539 CNRS/UBO/IRD/Ifremer, IUEM, rue Dumont d'Urville, 29280, Plouzané, France
| | - Nelly Le Goïc
- LEMAR UMR 6539 CNRS/UBO/IRD/Ifremer, IUEM, rue Dumont d'Urville, 29280, Plouzané, France
| | - Caroline Fabioux
- LEMAR UMR 6539 CNRS/UBO/IRD/Ifremer, IUEM, rue Dumont d'Urville, 29280, Plouzané, France.
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Castrec J, Soudant P, Payton L, Tran D, Miner P, Lambert C, Le Goïc N, Huvet A, Quillien V, Boullot F, Amzil Z, Hégaret H, Fabioux C. Bioactive extracellular compounds produced by the dinoflagellate Alexandrium minutum are highly detrimental for oysters. Aquat Toxicol 2018; 199:188-198. [PMID: 29653309 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2018.03.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2018] [Revised: 03/27/2018] [Accepted: 03/28/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Blooms of the dinoflagellate Alexandrium spp., known as producers of paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs), are regularly detected on the French coastline. PSTs accumulate into harvested shellfish species, such as the Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas, and can cause strong disorders to consumers at high doses. The impacts of Alexandrium minutum on C. gigas have often been attributed to its production of PSTs without testing separately the effects of the bioactive extracellular compounds (BECs) with allelopathic, hemolytic, cytotoxic or ichthyotoxic properties, which can also be produced by these algae. The BECs, still uncharacterized, are excreted within the environment thereby impacting not only phytoplankton, zooplankton but also marine invertebrates and fishes, without implicating any PST. The aim of this work was to compare the effects of three strains of A. minutum producing either only PSTs, only BECs, or both PSTs and BECs, on the oyster C. gigas. Behavioral and physiological responses of oysters exposed during 4 days were monitored and showed contrasted behavioral and physiological responses in oysters supposedly depending on produced bioactive substances. The non-PST extracellular-compound-producing strain primarily strongly modified valve-activity behavior of C. gigas and induced hemocyte mobilization within the gills, whereas the PST-producing strain caused inflammatory responses within the digestive gland and disrupted the daily biological rhythm of valve activity behavior. BECs may therefore have a significant harmful effect on the gills, which is one of the first organ in contact with the extracellular substances released in the water by A. minutum. Conversely, the PSTs impact the digestive gland, where they are released and mainly accumulated, after degradation of algal cells during digestion process of bivalves. This study provides a better understanding of the toxicity of A. minutum on oyster and highlights the significant role of BECs in this toxicity calling for further chemical characterization of these substances.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Castrec
- LEMAR UMR 6539 CNRS/UBO/IRD/Ifremer, IUEM, rue Dumont d'Urville, 29280 Plouzané, France.
| | - P Soudant
- LEMAR UMR 6539 CNRS/UBO/IRD/Ifremer, IUEM, rue Dumont d'Urville, 29280 Plouzané, France
| | - L Payton
- CNRS, EPOC, UMR 5805, F-33120 Arcachon, France
| | - D Tran
- CNRS, EPOC, UMR 5805, F-33120 Arcachon, France
| | - P Miner
- Ifremer, LEMAR UMR 6539 CNRS/UBO/IRD/Ifremer, Centre de Bretagne, CS 10070, 29280 Plouzané, France
| | - C Lambert
- LEMAR UMR 6539 CNRS/UBO/IRD/Ifremer, IUEM, rue Dumont d'Urville, 29280 Plouzané, France
| | - N Le Goïc
- LEMAR UMR 6539 CNRS/UBO/IRD/Ifremer, IUEM, rue Dumont d'Urville, 29280 Plouzané, France
| | - A Huvet
- Ifremer, LEMAR UMR 6539 CNRS/UBO/IRD/Ifremer, Centre de Bretagne, CS 10070, 29280 Plouzané, France
| | - V Quillien
- Ifremer, LEMAR UMR 6539 CNRS/UBO/IRD/Ifremer, Centre de Bretagne, CS 10070, 29280 Plouzané, France
| | - F Boullot
- LEMAR UMR 6539 CNRS/UBO/IRD/Ifremer, IUEM, rue Dumont d'Urville, 29280 Plouzané, France
| | - Z Amzil
- Ifremer, Laboratoire Phycotoxines, BP 21105, F-44311 Nantes, France
| | - H Hégaret
- LEMAR UMR 6539 CNRS/UBO/IRD/Ifremer, IUEM, rue Dumont d'Urville, 29280 Plouzané, France
| | - C Fabioux
- LEMAR UMR 6539 CNRS/UBO/IRD/Ifremer, IUEM, rue Dumont d'Urville, 29280 Plouzané, France
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Boullot F, Castrec J, Bidault A, Dantas N, Payton L, Perrigault M, Tran D, Amzil Z, Boudry P, Soudant P, Hégaret H, Fabioux C. Molecular Characterization of Voltage-Gated Sodium Channels and Their Relations with Paralytic Shellfish Toxin Bioaccumulation in the Pacific Oyster Crassostrea gigas. Mar Drugs 2017; 15:md15010021. [PMID: 28106838 PMCID: PMC5295241 DOI: 10.3390/md15010021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2016] [Revised: 01/04/2017] [Accepted: 01/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Paralytic shellfish toxins (PST) bind to voltage-gated sodium channels (Nav) and block conduction of action potential in excitable cells. This study aimed to (i) characterize Nav sequences in Crassostrea gigas and (ii) investigate a putative relation between Nav and PST-bioaccumulation in oysters. The phylogenetic analysis highlighted two types of Nav in C. gigas: a Nav1 (CgNav1) and a Nav2 (CgNav2) with sequence properties of sodium-selective and sodium/calcium-selective channels, respectively. Three alternative splice transcripts of CgNav1 named A, B and C, were characterized. The expression of CgNav1, analyzed by in situ hybridization, is specific to nervous cells and to structures corresponding to neuromuscular junctions. Real-time PCR analyses showed a strong expression of CgNav1A in the striated muscle while CgNav1B is mainly expressed in visceral ganglia. CgNav1C expression is ubiquitous. The PST binding site (domain II) of CgNav1 variants possess an amino acid Q that could potentially confer a partial saxitoxin (STX)-resistance to the channel. The CgNav1 genotype or alternative splicing would not be the key point determining PST bioaccumulation level in oysters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Floriane Boullot
- Laboratoire des Sciences de l'Environnement Marin (LEMAR), Institut Universitaire Européen de la Mer, Université de Bretagne Occidentale, UMR 6539 CNRS/UBO/IRD/Ifremer, 29280 Plouzané, France.
| | - Justine Castrec
- Laboratoire des Sciences de l'Environnement Marin (LEMAR), Institut Universitaire Européen de la Mer, Université de Bretagne Occidentale, UMR 6539 CNRS/UBO/IRD/Ifremer, 29280 Plouzané, France.
| | - Adeline Bidault
- Laboratoire des Sciences de l'Environnement Marin (LEMAR), Institut Universitaire Européen de la Mer, Université de Bretagne Occidentale, UMR 6539 CNRS/UBO/IRD/Ifremer, 29280 Plouzané, France.
| | - Natanael Dantas
- Laboratory of Immunology and Pathology of Invertebrates, Department of Molecular Biology, Exact and Natural Sciences Center, Federal University of Paraíba-Campus I, 58051-900 João Pessoa, PB, Brazil.
| | - Laura Payton
- UMR 5805 EPOC, CNRS-Équipe Écotoxicologie Aquatique, Université de Bordeaux, Station Marine d'Arcachon, 33120 Arcachon, France.
| | - Mickael Perrigault
- UMR 5805 EPOC, CNRS-Équipe Écotoxicologie Aquatique, Université de Bordeaux, Station Marine d'Arcachon, 33120 Arcachon, France.
| | - Damien Tran
- UMR 5805 EPOC, CNRS-Équipe Écotoxicologie Aquatique, Université de Bordeaux, Station Marine d'Arcachon, 33120 Arcachon, France.
| | - Zouher Amzil
- Laboratoire Phycotoxines, IFREMER, BP 21105, 44311 Nantes, France.
| | - Pierre Boudry
- Ifremer, UMR 6539 LEMAR CNRS/UBO/IRD/Ifremer, 29280 Plouzané, France.
| | - Philippe Soudant
- Laboratoire des Sciences de l'Environnement Marin (LEMAR), Institut Universitaire Européen de la Mer, Université de Bretagne Occidentale, UMR 6539 CNRS/UBO/IRD/Ifremer, 29280 Plouzané, France.
| | - Hélène Hégaret
- Laboratoire des Sciences de l'Environnement Marin (LEMAR), Institut Universitaire Européen de la Mer, Université de Bretagne Occidentale, UMR 6539 CNRS/UBO/IRD/Ifremer, 29280 Plouzané, France.
| | - Caroline Fabioux
- Laboratoire des Sciences de l'Environnement Marin (LEMAR), Institut Universitaire Européen de la Mer, Université de Bretagne Occidentale, UMR 6539 CNRS/UBO/IRD/Ifremer, 29280 Plouzané, France.
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