Sialorrhea in Parkinson's Disease

Mechanisms of oral microflora in Parkinson's disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a common neurodegenerative disease with complex pathogenesis and no effective treatment. Recent studies have shown that dysbiosis of the oral microflora is closely related to the development of PD. The abnormally distributed oral microflora of PD patients cause degenerative damage and necrosis of dopamine neurons by releasing their own components and metabolites, intervening in the oral-gut-brain axis, crossing the biofilm, inducing iron dysregulation, activating inter-microflora interactions, and through the mediation of saliva,ultimately influencing the development of the disease. This article reviews the structure of oral microflora in patients with PD, the mechanism of development of PD caused by oral microflora, and the potential value of targeting oral microflora in developing a new strategy for PD prevention, diagnosis and treatment.

Pediatric Salivary Gland Pathology

Benign and malignant salivary gland disorders are uncommon in the pediatric population; however, these can be frequently seen in pediatric otolaryngology or oral and maxillofacial surgery practices. The astute clinician should be aware of the clinical presentation, diagnosis, and management options for common inflammatory, infectious, benign, and malignant disorders of salivary glands.

Molecular characterization of the circadian clock in patients with Parkinson's disease-CLOCK4PD Study protocol

INTRODUCTION

Circadian rhythms (CRs) orchestrate intrinsic 24-hour oscillations which synchronize an organism's physiology and behaviour with respect to daily cycles. CR disruptions have been linked to Parkinson's Disease (PD), the second most prevalent neurodegenerative disorder globally, and are associated to several PD-symptoms such as sleep disturbances. Studying molecular changes of CR offers a potential avenue for unravelling novel insights into the PD progression, symptoms, and can be further used for optimization of treatment strategies. Yet, a comprehensive characterization of the alterations at the molecular expression level for core-clock and clock-controlled genes in PD is still missing.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

The proposed study protocol will be used to characterize expression profiles of circadian genes obtained from saliva samples in PD patients and controls. For this purpose, 20 healthy controls and 70 PD patients will be recruited. Data from clinical assessment, questionnaires, actigraphy tracking and polysomnography will be collected and clinical evaluations will be repeated as a follow-up in one-year time. We plan to carry out sub-group analyses considering several clinical factors (e.g., biological sex, treatment dosages, or fluctuation of symptoms), and to correlate reflected changes in CR of measured genes with distinct PD phenotypes (diffuse malignant and mild/motor-predominant). Additionally, using NanoStringⓇ multiplex technology on a subset of samples, we aim to further explore potential CR alterations in hundreds of genes involved in neuropathology pathways.

DISCUSSION

CLOCK4PD is a mono-centric, non-interventional observational study aiming at the molecular characterization of CR alterations in PD. We further plan to determine physiological modifications in sleep and activity patterns, and clinical factors correlating with the observed CR changes. Our study may provide valuable insights into the intricate interplay between CR and PD with a potential to be used as a predictor of circadian alterations reflecting distinct disease phenotypes, symptoms, and progression outcomes.

Intraoral Acupuncture for Sialorrhea in Stroke Patients: a Study Protocol for a Randomized Controlled Trial

Importance

Post-stroke sialorrhea (PSS) refers to excessive saliva flowing out the lip border after a stroke. PSS negatively affects patient self-image and social communication and may lead to depression. Limited evidence supports the link between excessive salivation and PSS. No large-scale, strictly controlled randomized controlled trials have shown the effectiveness of acupuncture in treating PSS patients.

Objective

We aim to compare the effects of intraoral and sham acupuncture in PSS patients and explore relationships among salivation and drooling severity and frequency and swallowing function in stroke patients.

Design

Clinical study protocol, SPIRIT compliant.

Setting

Prospective, single-center, randomized, and sham-controlled trial.

Population

We will recruit 106 PSS patients to receive 4-week intraoral or sham acupuncture. Additionally, 53 stroke patients without PSS will undergo a conventional 4-week treatment program to compare salivation between PSS and non-PSS patients.

Exposures

Intraoral or sham acupuncture.

Main Outcomes and Measures

The main evaluation index will be the 3-minute saliva weight (3MSW), comparing changes in 3MSW from baseline to weeks 4 and 8. Secondary assessment indices will include the “Drooling Severity and Frequency Scale” and “Functional Oral Intake Scale.”

Results

The results from this study will be published in peer-reviewed journals.

Conclusion

Comparing effects of intraoral and sham acupuncture in PSS patients, this study may contribute important evidence for future PSS treatment and provide valuable insights into whether salivation issues in stroke patients are attributed to heightened salivary secretion or dysphagia.

Parkinson's disease - The dentist's role as part of the healthcare team

Parkinson's disease is a neurodegenerative disease that results in patients exhibiting uncontrolled movements, changes in saliva production, and difficulty in swallowing and speech. Understanding the staging of the disease and the available therapies allows dentists to treat these patients safely and with compassion to meet their oral health care needs for an optimal quality of life. This appraisal discusses Parkinson's disease as it relates to clinically relevant facts to manage and treat the oral health care needs of these patients in the short and long term including general dental care recommendations. Important observations related to Parkinson's disease include disease causation,; stages, pharmacologic treatment, the effects on saliva, mastication, dysphagia, and aspiration pneumonia. Dental recommendations are made for the dentate, the partially edentulous, and the completely edentulous Parkinson's patients with a focus on late-stage concerns. Optimizing dental health will help maintain the quality of life as the disease progresses. In late stages of Parkinson's disease, dental treatment should focus on keeping the patient comfortable and out of pain.  While benign neglect is an often-used term, compassionate therapy in the late stages of Parkinson's disease is a more compelling term for defining the patient's needs.  Since dysphagia in Parkinson's patients has been underdiagnosed, neurologists must be aware of the important part that dentists play in the early diagnosis for these patients.  Early referral to a dentist is vital to mitigate the unfortunate consequence of the need for extensive dental care in late-stage patients.

Alteration of myoepithelial cells during botulinum toxin type A-inhibited salivary secretion

OBJECTIVE

Intraglandular injection of botulinum toxin type A (BoNT/A) effectively treats sialorrhea. Myoepithelial cells (MECs) are essential for salivary secretion. The role of MECs in BoNT/A-inhibited salivary secretion, and its underlying mechanisms remain unknown.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

BoNT/A was injected into rat submandibular glands (SMGs). At 1, 2, 4, 8, and 12 weeks postinjection, salivary flow rate of SMGs was measured. Electron microscopy, immunohistochemistry, immunofluorescence, and Western blot analysis were used to detect morphological and functional changes in MECs and chemical denervation in SMGs.

RESULTS

BoNT/A temporarily decreased salivary secretion in rat SMGs and this inhibitory effect lasted 4 weeks. During the inhibitory period, MECs atrophied and expressed reduced α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA), vimentin, and phosphorylated myosin light chain 2 (p-MLC2), suggesting that BoNT/A attenuated MEC contractility. Furthermore, BoNT/A cleaved synaptosome-associated protein 25 (SNAP-25) and decreased the expression and activity of acetylcholinesterase (AChE), indicating that BoNT/A-induced chemical parasympathetic denervation of SMGs by cleaving SNAP-25.

CONCLUSIONS

BoNT/A temporarily caused MEC atrophy and decreased MEC contractility in rat SMGs, which contributed to reversible inhibition of salivary secretion. The underlying mechanisms involved temporary parasympathetic denervation caused by SNAP-25 cleavage. These findings provide new insights into the mechanisms of BoNT/A-inhibited salivary secretion.

Botulinum toxin type a blocks aquaporin 5 trafficking by decreasing synaptosomal-associated protein 23 in submandibular acinar cells

The trafficking of aquaporin 5 (AQP5) is critical for salivary secretion. Synaptosomal-associated protein 23 (SNAP23) is an important regulator in the process of membrane fusion. However, the role of SNAP23 on AQP5 trafficking has not been explored. Botulinum toxin type A (BoNT/A) is a bacterial toxin that effectively treats sialorrhea. We previously reported that BoNT/A induced AQP5 redistribution in cultured acinar cells, but the mechanism remained unclear. In this study, SNAP23 was predominantly localized to the plasma membrane of acinar cells in the rat submandibular gland (SMG) and colocalized with AQP5 at the apical membrane of acinar cells. In stable GFP-AQP5-transfected SMG-C6 cells, the acetylcholine receptor agonist carbachol (CCh) induced trafficking of AQP5 from intracellular vesicles to the apical membrane. Furthermore, SNAP23 knockdown by siRNA significantly inhibited CCh-induced AQP5 trafficking, whereas this inhibitory effect was reversed by SNAP23 re-expression, indicating that SNAP23 was essential in AQP5 trafficking. More importantly, BoNT/A inhibited salivary secretion from SMGs, and the underlying mechanism involved that BoNT/A blocked CCh-triggered AQP5 trafficking by decreasing SNAP23 in acinar cells. Taken together, these results identified a crucial role for SNAP23 in AQP5 trafficking and provided new insights into the mechanism of BoNT/A in treating sialorrhea and thereby a theoretical basis for clinical applications.

Medical, surgical, and physical treatments for Parkinson's disease

Although dopamine replacement therapy remains a core component of Parkinson's disease treatment, the onset of motor fluctuations and dyskinetic movements might require a range of medical and surgical approaches from a multidisciplinary team, and important new approaches in the delivery of dopamine replacement are becoming available. The more challenging, wide range of non-motor symptoms can also have a major impact on the quality of life of a patient with Parkinson's disease, and requires careful multidisciplinary management using evidence-based knowledge, as well as appropriately tailored strategies according to the individual patient's needs. Disease-modifying therapies are urgently needed to prevent the development of the most disabling refractory symptoms, including gait and balance difficulties, cognitive impairment and dementia, and speech and swallowing impairments. In the third paper in this Series, we present the latest evidence supporting the optimal treatment of Parkinson's disease, and describe an expert approach to many aspects of treatment choice where an evidence base is insufficient.

The effectiveness of ultrasound-guided injection of BTX-A in the management of sialorrhea in neurogenic dysphagia patients

Objective

To evaluate the effectiveness of ultrasound-guided injection of botulinum toxin type A (BTX-A) in treating sialorrhea.

Methods

We recruited 32 sialorrhea subjects and they received an ultrasound-guided injection of BTX-A. The extent of salivation was evaluated according to the Visual Analog Scale (VAS), Drooling Severity and Frequency Scale (DSFS), and Saliva Flow Rate (SFR). Laryngeal secretions were evaluated based on Fiberoptic Endoscopic Evaluation of Swallowing (FEES) rated according to the Murray Secretion Scale (MSS). We assessed the extent of salivation and laryngeal secretions before injection and at 1, 2, and 4 weeks after injection.

Results

The scores for the VAS, DSFS-S, DSFS-F, and DSFS-T decreased significantly at 1, 2, and 4 weeks after injection compared with before injection (p < .05). Based on VAS, the efficacy was substantially higher at 2 and 4 weeks after injection than at 1 week after injection (p < .05). According to DSFS-S and DSFS-T, the efficacy was significantly higher at 4 weeks than at 1 week after injection (p < .05). The SFR and MSS scores at 1 and 2 weeks after injection were superior to those before injection (p < .05). Meanwhile, the SFR score 2 weeks after injection was superior to that 1 week after injection (p < .05).

Conclusion

The ultrasound-guided injection of BTX-A can effectively reduce saliva secretion in patients with neurogenic dysphagia. Furthermore, it has the advantages of early onset time and lasting curative effects, which indicates that clinical promotion and application of this technique are justified.

Level of Evidence

Level 3.

The effectiveness and safety of botulinum toxin injections for the treatment of sialorrhea with Parkinson's disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Botulinum toxin (BoNT) injection is an important adjunctive method to treat sialorrhea. The purpose of this systematic review was to analyze the effect and safety of BoNT injections in the intervention of sialorrhea with Parkinson's disease (PD).

METHODS

We searched PubMed, Web Of Science (WOS), Scopus, Cochrane CENTRAL, and Embase from inception until April 2022. Randomized controlled trials or randomized crossover trials comparing BoNT with placebo in sialorrhea with PD were eligible. PRISMA guidelines were used to carry out the meta-analysis. The Drooling Severity Frequency Scale (DSFS) score and the number of adverse events (AEs) were the primary and secondary outcomes, respectively. Standardized mean differences (SMDs) and risk differences (RDs) are used to express continuous and categorical outcomes, respectively. Heterogeneity among these studies was evaluated using I2 tests. We used the GRADE tool to assess the certainty of evidence (COE).

RESULTS

Eight articles involving 259 patients compared BoNT injections with a placebo for PD with sialorrhea. This meta-analysis showed a significant reduction in DSFS scores between BoNT injections and placebo (SMD=-0.98; 95% CI, -1.27 to 0.70, p<0.001; COE: high). This meta-analysis showed a significant difference in AEs between BoNT injections and placebo (RD=0.15; 95% CI, 0.05 to 0.24, p=0.002; COE: low).

CONCLUSIONS

The pooled results suggest that BoNT injections have some effect on DSFS scores with sialorrhea caused by PD. There are also mild adverse events, which generally recover within a week or so. The results indicate that BoNT injection is one of the treatments for sialorrhea caused by PD, but we need to pay attention to adverse events. In addition, the follow-up time was extended to observe oral hygiene, ulceration or dental caries, and digestive function.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Our review protocol was registered on PROSPERO (42021288334).

Recommendations for a paradigm shift in approach to increase the recognition and treatment of sialorrhea in Parkinson's disease

Sialorrhea, or drooling, is defined as excessive saliva accumulation and unwanted loss of saliva from the mouth or over the tongue and into the pharynx. It constitutes one of the most frequent and bothersome complaints of patients with Parkinson's disease (PD), affecting up to 84% of them. Sialorrhea is a distressing and challenging condition that may result in social isolation, embarrassment, depression, skin infections, poor oral health, and aspiration pneumonia. To better understand the burden of sialorrhea on patients with PD, Parkinson's Europe carried out a worldwide patient survey which showed that sialorrhea remains an underrecognized and undertreated issue in patients with PD. This is especially problematic because effective therapeutic options are available. This article presents the results of the Parkinson's Europe Sialorrhea Survey, which were considered by a multidisciplinary panel of experts to provide recommendations for improving the awareness, diagnosis, management, and treatment of sialorrhea in patients with PD. A shift in the treatment paradigm for sialorrhea in patients with PD is emerging. It is essential to better educate patients, family members, caregivers, and healthcare professionals about sialorrhea; to engage all those involved to actively discuss sialorrhea and measure its impact on quality of life; and to recognize the role of botulinum toxin and speech and language therapy as first-line therapies.

Drooling disrupts the brain functional connectivity network in Parkinson's disease

AIMS

This study aimed to investigate the causal interaction between significant sensorimotor network (SMN) regions and other brain regions in Parkinson's disease patients with drooling (droolers).

METHODS

Twenty-one droolers, 22 PD patients without drooling (non-droolers), and 22 matched healthy controls underwent 3T-MRI resting-state scans. We performed independent component analysis and Granger causality analysis to determine whether significant SMN regions help predict other brain areas. Pearson's correlation was computed between imaging characteristics and clinical characteristics. ROC curves were plotted to assess the diagnostic performance of effective connectivity (EC).

RESULTS

Compared with non-droolers and healthy controls, droolers showed abnormal EC of the right caudate nucleus (CAU.R) and right postcentral gyrus to extensive brain regions. In droolers, increased EC from the CAU.R to the right middle temporal gyrus was positively correlated with MDS-UPDRS, MDS-UPDRS II, NMSS, and HAMD scores; increased EC from the right inferior parietal lobe to CAU.R was positively correlated with MDS-UPDRS score. ROC curve analysis showed that these abnormal ECs are of great significance in diagnosing drooling in PD.

CONCLUSION

This study identified that PD patients with drooling have abnormal EC in the cortico-limbic-striatal-cerebellar and cortio-cortical networks, which could be potential biomarkers for drooling in PD.

Botulinum toxin in the management of parkinsonian disorders

Many studies have shown that botulinum toxin (BoNT) can be an option to treat motor and non-motor symptoms in Parkinson's disease (PD) and parkinsonian syndromes. The advantages of BoNT compared to oral medications include localized action and low incidence of systemic side effects, which is important in treating neurodegenerative disease. Motor symptoms that can be treated with BoNT include blepharospasm, apraxia of eyelid opening, tremor, cervical dystonia and limb dystonia. Other indications with less evidence include camptocormia, freezing of gait and dyskinesia. Non-motor symptoms that may improve with BoNT include sialorrhea, pain, overreactive bladder, dysphagia and constipation. However, the current evidence for use of BoNT in parkinsonism is mostly based on open-label studies and there are few randomized, controlled trials. BoNT can be a valuable tool to treat certain symptoms of PD and parkinsonian syndromes to improve the patient's quality of life. However, many of the uses are not supported by high quality studies and further studies are needed to provide further evidence of efficacy, define the optimal injection protocols such as doses and muscle selection.

Dysphagia in Parkinson Disease: Part II-Current Treatment Options and Insights from Animal Research

Purpose of Review

Dysphagia is highly prevalent in Parkinson disease (PD) but is not typically identified nor treated until later in the disease process. This review summarizes current pharmacological, surgical, and behavioral treatments for PD-associated dysphagia and contributions from translational animal research.

Recent Findings

Swallowing is a complex physiologic process controlled by multiple brain regions and neurotransmitter systems. As such, interventions that target nigrostriatal dopamine dysfunction have limited or detrimental effects on swallowing outcomes. Behavioral interventions can help target PD-associated dysphagia in mid-to-late stages. Animal research is necessary to refine treatments and useful in studying prodromal dysphagia.

Summary

Dysphagia is an early, common, and debilitating sign of PD. Current pharmacological and surgical interventions are not effective in ameliorating swallowing dysfunction; behavioral intervention remains the most effective approach for dysphagia treatment. Animal research has advanced our understanding of mechanisms underlying PD and PD-associated dysphagia, and continues to show translational promise for the study of dysphagia treatment options.

Dysphagia in Parkinson Disease: Part I - Pathophysiology and Diagnostic Practices

Purpose of Review

Dysphagia affects the majority of individuals with Parkinson disease (PD) and is not typically diagnosed until later in disease progression. This review will cover the current understanding of PD pathophysiology, and provides an overview of dysphagia in PD including diagnostic practices, gaps in knowledge, and future directions.

Recent Findings

Many non-motor and other motor signs of PD appear in the prodrome prior to the manifestation of hall- mark signs and diagnosis. While dysphagia often presents already in the prodrome, it is not routinely addressed in standard neurology examinations.

Summary

Dysphagia in PD can result in compromised efficiency and safety of swallowing, which significantly contributes to malnutrition and dehydration, decrease quality of life, and increase mortality. The heterogeneous clinical presentation of PD complicates diagnostic procedures which often leads to delayed treatment. Research has advanced our knowledge of mechanisms underlying PD, but dysphagia is still largely understudied, especially in the prodromal stage.

Gastrointestinal Dysfunction in Parkinson's Disease: Neuro-Gastroenterology Perspectives on a Multifaceted Problem

Patients with Parkinson's disease (PD) face a multitude of gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms, including nausea, bloating, reduced bowel movements, and difficulties with defecation. These symptoms are common and may accumulate during the course of PD but are often under-recognized and challenging to manage. Objective testing can be burdensome to patients and does not correlate well with symptoms. Effective treatment options are limited. Evidence is often based on studies in the general population, and specific evidence in PD is scarce. Upper GI dysfunction may also interfere with the pharmacological treatment of PD motor symptoms, which poses significant management challenges. Several new less invasive assessment tools and novel treatment options have emerged in recent years. The current review provides an overview and a practical approach to recognizing and diagnosing common upper and lower GI problems in PD, e.g., dyspepsia, gastroparesis, small bowel dysfunction, chronic constipation, and defecatory dysfunction. Management aspects are discussed based on the latest evidence from the PD and general populations, with insights for future research pertaining to GI dysfunction in PD.

Effectiveness of the pharmacological treatments for sialorrhea in patients with Parkinson's disease: a systematic review and network meta-analysis

OBJECTIVES

The present systematic review and network meta-analysis of randomized control trials (RCTs) aimed to establish whether there are evidence-based differences in the pharmacological agents used to manage sialorrhea in patients with Parkinson's disease (PD).

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The authors searched the databases: MEDLINE via PubMed, EMBASE, Scopus, Web of Science, and Cochrane Library for clinical trials. Unpublished trials were searched on clinicaltrials.gov and the Brazilian Clinical Trials Registry. Means and standard deviations of changes in the salivary flow or drooling reported by participants due to the interventions were recorded.

RESULTS

The authors analyzed 13 RCTs. Compared to the placebo, types A and B of the botulinum toxin effectively reduced the salivary flow and the severity or frequency of drooling. However, the network meta-analysis did not differentiate between the botulinum toxin types. Ipratropium bromide and glycopyrrolate did not differ from the placebo. Indirect evidence showed that ipratropium had similar results to those obtained with both types of botulinum toxin. The CINeMA approach estimated the quality of the evidence as very low for all comparisons.

CONCLUSION

The best treatment for sialorrhea in patients with PD is not fully elucidated yet. Therefore, more well-conducted randomized clinical trials are required to increase the level of evidence.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

There needs to be more evidence defining the best intervention to treat sialorrhea in patients with PD. However, botulinum toxin types A and B seem to reduce sialorrhea in patients effectively.

The Masticatory Structure and Function in Children with Cerebral Palsy—A Pilot Study

(1) Background: Muscle tension around the head and neck influences orofacial functions. The data exist concerning head posture during increased salivation; however, little is known about muscle tightness during this process. This study aims to investigate whether or not any muscles are related to problems with eating, such as drooling in individuals with cerebral palsy; (2) Methods: Nineteen patients between the ages of 1 and 14 were examined prior to the physiotherapy intervention. This intervention lasted three months and consisted of: relaxing muscles via the strain-counterstrain technique, functional exercises based on the NeuroDevelopmental Treatment-Bobath method, and functional exercises for eating; (3) Results: the tone of rectus capitis posterior minor muscle on the left side (p = 0.027) and temporalis muscle on the right side (p = 0.048) before the therapy, and scalene muscle on the right side after the therapy (p = 0.024) were correlated with drooling behavior and were considered statistically significant. Gross motor function was not considered statistically significant with the occurrence of drooling behavior (p ≤ 0.05). Following the therapeutic intervention, the frequency of drooling during feeding decreased from 63.16% to 38.89% of the total sample of examined patients; (4) Conclusions: The tightness of the muscles in the head area can cause drooling during feeding.

Pharmacological Interventions for Sialorrhoea in People with Parkinson's Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Background/objectives

Sialorrhoea is a common non motor complication experienced by people with Parkinson's disease (PD). Despite its prevalence there is conflicting evidence on how to effectively treat it. Our aim was to establish the efficacy and safety outcomes of pharmacological interventions used to treat sialorrhoea in people with idiopathic PD.

Methods

We registered and conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis (PROSPERO: CRD42016042470). We searched seven electronic databases from inception until July 2022. Quantitative synthesis was performed where data allowed using random effects models.

Results

From 1374 records we included 13 studies (n = 405 participants). Studies were conducted in Europe, North America and China. There was marked heterogeneity in the interventions used, follow up times and outcome measures investigated. The main source of risk of bias identified was reporting bias. Five studies were included in the quantitative synthesis. Summary estimates showed administration of botulinum toxin significantly reduced saliva production, improved patient reported functional outcomes and was associated with an increase in adverse events.

Conclusion

Sialorrhoea in PD is an important condition, but current data does not allow for strong recommendations on optimal pharmacological treatments. There is significant heterogeneity in outcomes measures used to evaluate the burden of sialorrhoea with lack of consensus on what constitutes clinically meaningful change. More research is required to better understand the underlying mechanism and potential treatments of sialorrhoea in idiopathic PD.

Application Site of Transdermal Scopolamine Influences Efficacy and Drug Concentration in Salivary Glands in Rats

Transdermal scopolamine applied to the postauricular area is used to treat drooling. We investigated the duration of action of scopolamine ointment and the effect of the application site on drug efficacy and concentration in the salivary glands of rats. Scopolamine ointment was applied to the skin over the salivary glands (SSG) and back (SB). Saliva volume was measured after intraperitoneal administration of pilocarpine. Blood and salivary glands were collected after scopolamine ointment application, and scopolamine concentrations in the plasma and salivary glands were measured. Saliva volume after application in the SSG group was significantly lower at all time points than in the non-treated group, and the change in saliva volume in the SSG group was greater than that in the SB group at all time points. This suggests that applying scopolamine ointment to the SSG strongly suppresses salivary secretion. Scopolamine concentration in the salivary glands of the SSG group was significantly higher at 9 h. The change in the efficacy of scopolamine ointment depending on the application site was due to the difference in transfer to the salivary glands. Transdermal administration of scopolamine to the skin over the salivary glands may have high efficiency in treating drooling.

Reliability and Validity Study of a Turkish Version of the Sialorrhea Clinical Scale for Parkinson's Disease (SCS-TR)

Introduction

To evaluate the validity and reliability of the Turkish version of the Sialorrhea Clinical Scale for Parkinson's disease (SCS-PD) for use in clinical settings.

Methods

The original English version of SCS-PD has been adapted to Turkish (SCS-TR) in accordance with international guidelines. Forty-one patients with Parkinson's Disease (PD) and 31 healthy people were included in our study. SCS-TR, Movement Disorders Society United Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale (MDS-UPDRS) Part II (functional subscale 2.2 Saliva and drooling), Drooling Frequency and Severity Scale (DFSS) and The Non-Motor Symptoms Questionnaire (NMSQ) (1st question evaluating saliva) were applied to both groups. The adapted scale was re-tested in PD patients 2 weeks later.

Results

A statistically significant relationship was determined between the SCS-TR scale score and all similar scale scores (NMSQ, MDS-UPDRS, DFSS) (p<0.001). The correlation between SCS-TR and similar scales scores was high, linear and positive (84.8% for MDS-UPDRS, 72.3% for DFSS and 70.1% for NMSQ). The Cronbach's alpha coefficient for the evaluation of the reliability of the sialorrhea clinical scale questionnaire was found to be 0.881 which indicates a very good internal consistency. Spearman's correlation test evaluating the relationship between the scores of the preliminary test and re-test of SCS-TR showed a high level, linear and positive relationship.

Conclusion

SCS-TR is consistent with the original version of SCS-PD. As its validity and reliability in Turkey have been shown by our study, it can be used for the evaluation of sialorrhea in Turkish PD patients.

Alteration of tight junctions during botulinum toxin type A-inhibited salivary secretion

OBJECTIVES

Tight junctions (TJs) are involved in the regulation of salivary secretion via paracellular pathway. Botulinum toxin type A (BTXA) is widely used for the treatment of hypersecretion diseases such as sialorrhea. This study aimed to investigate the role of TJs in BTXA-inhibited secretion of the submandibular gland (SMG).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

BTXA was injected into the SMGs of rats, and the same amount of saline was injected as a control. Western blot, real-time PCR and immunofluorescence staining were used to detect the expression and distribution of TJ proteins. Paracellular permeability was evaluated using the transepithelial electrical resistance (TER) measurements and fluorescent tracer detection in BTXA-stimulated SMG-C6 cells.

RESULTS

BTXA injection into the SMGs of rats led to increased expression of claudin (Cldn) -1 and Cldn3. Immunofluorescence staining showed no significant changes in the distribution of TJ proteins. In vitro, BTXA increased the TER values and significantly reduced the permeability of fluorescent tracer, suggesting that BTXA decreased the paracellular permeability. The expression levels of Cldn1, Cldn3 and Cldn4 were upregulated after BTXA treatment.

CONCLUSION

The expression of TJ proteins changed in both animal models and SMG-C6 cells after BTXA treatment, which may contribute to the inhibition of salivary secretion.

The importance of community nurses in supporting Parkinson's patients on complex therapies

A newly updated non-oral treatment pathway for people with Parkinson's who have complex needs provides clear, instructive guidance on identifying, assessing, treating and managing individuals on these therapies. While specialists provide much of the care within these pathways, district and community nurses are essential to ensure that patients progressing to more complex phases of the condition are identified and referred for specialist assessment, as well as being instrumental in the monitoring and ongoing management required once a new therapy is in place.

Editorial on the Special Issue "Botulinum Toxin for the Treatment of Neurological Disorders: Where We Are and Where We Need to Go"

Over the past 30 years, botulinum toxin (BoNT) has seen an ever-expanding use in disorders afflicting the nervous system [...].

The Impact of SNCA Variations and Its Product Alpha-Synuclein on Non-Motor Features of Parkinson's Disease

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a common and progressive neurodegenerative disease, caused by the loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta in the midbrain, which is clinically characterized by a constellation of motor and non-motor manifestations. The latter include hyposmia, constipation, depression, pain and, in later stages, cognitive decline and dysautonomia. The main pathological features of PD are neuronal loss and consequent accumulation of Lewy bodies (LB) in the surviving neurons. Alpha-synuclein (α-syn) is the main component of LB, and α-syn aggregation and accumulation perpetuate neuronal degeneration. Mutations in the α-syn gene (SNCA) were the first genetic cause of PD to be identified. Generally, patients carrying SNCA mutations present early-onset parkinsonism with severe and early non-motor symptoms, including cognitive decline. Several SNCA polymorphisms were also identified, and some of them showed association with non-motor manifestations. The functional role of these polymorphisms is only partially understood. In this review we explore the contribution of SNCA and its product, α-syn, in predisposing to the non-motor manifestations of PD.