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Juan-García A, Juan C, Taipale S, Vehniäinen ER. Beauvericin and enniatin B mycotoxins alter aquatic ecosystems: Effects on green algae. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY 2024; 107:104415. [PMID: 38503354 DOI: 10.1016/j.etap.2024.104415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2023] [Accepted: 03/14/2024] [Indexed: 03/21/2024]
Abstract
Myxotoxins can contaminate algal-based products and arrive to the food chain to consumers producing chronic toxicity effects. Here, we studied phytotoxicity of mycotoxins, beauvericin (BEA) and ennaitin B (ENN B) in four phytoplankton strains: Acutodesmus sp., Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, Haematococcus pluvialis, and Monoraphidium griffithii, which are all green algae. It was tested the capacity of clearing the media of BEA and ENN B at different concentrations by comparing nominal and measured quantifications. Results revealed that Acutodesmus sp. and C. reinhardtii tended to flow up and down growth rate without reaching values below 50% or 60%, respectively. On the other hand, for H. pluvialis and M. griffith, IC50 values were reached. Regarding the clearance of media, in individual treatment a decrease of the quantified mycotoxin between nominal and measured values was observed; while in binary treatment, differences among both values were higher and more noted for BEA than for ENN B.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Juan-García
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Science, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, València, Burjassot 46100, Spain; Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, Survontie 9C, Jyväskylä FI-40014, Finland.
| | - Cristina Juan
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Science, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, València, Burjassot 46100, Spain
| | - Sami Taipale
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, Survontie 9C, Jyväskylä FI-40014, Finland
| | - Eeva-Riikka Vehniäinen
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, Survontie 9C, Jyväskylä FI-40014, Finland
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2
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Koletsi P, Wiegertjes GF, Graat EAM, de Kool M, Lyons P, Schrama JW. Individual and combined effects of deoxynivalenol (DON) with other Fusarium mycotoxins on rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) growth performance and health. Mycotoxin Res 2023; 39:405-420. [PMID: 37470898 PMCID: PMC10635917 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-023-00496-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2023] [Revised: 05/23/2023] [Accepted: 06/19/2023] [Indexed: 07/21/2023]
Abstract
This study assessed whether the toxicological effects of deoxynivalenol (DON) produced by Fusarium graminearum in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) are altered by the co-exposure to a mixture of toxins produced by Fusarium verticillioides (FUmix). This FUmix contained fusaric acid and fumonisin B1, B2 and B3. Four diets were formulated according to a 2 × 2 factorial design: CON-CON; CON-FUmix; DON-CON; and DON-FUmix. Diets with and without DON contained on average 2700 and 0 µg/kg feed, respectively. The sum of the analysed FUmix toxins was 12,700 and 100 µg/kg feed in the diets with and without FUmix, respectively. The experiment consisted of a 6-week restrictive feeding period immediately followed by a 2-week ad libitum feeding period. Growth performance measurements were taken per feeding period. Histopathological measurements in the liver and gastrointestinal tract (pyloric caeca, midgut and hindgut) were assessed at the end of week 1 and week 6 of the restrictive feeding period and at week 8, the last day of the ad libitum feeding period. During both restrictive and ad libitum feeding, the effects of FUmix and DON on growth performance were additive (no interaction effect; p > 0.05). During the restrictive feeding period, exposure to DON (p ≤ 0.001) and FUmix (p ≤ 0.01) inhibited growth and increased feed conversion ratio (FCR). During this period, DON exposure decreased the protein (p ≤ 0.001) and energy retention (p ≤ 0.05) in the trout. During the ad libitum feeding period, FUmix affected HSI (p ≤ 0.01), while DON exposure reduced feed intake (p ≤ 0.001) and growth (p ≤ 0.001) and increased FCR (p ≤ 0.01). In general, for both liver and intestinal tissue measurements, no interaction effects between DON and FUmix were observed. In the liver, histopathological analysis revealed mild alterations, increased necrosis score by DON (p ≤ 0.01), increased glycogen vacuolization by FUmix (p ≤ 0.05) and decreased percentage of pleomorphic nuclei by FUmix (p ≤ 0.01). DON had a minor impact on the intestinal histological measurements. Over time, some of the liver (glycogen vacuolization score, pleomorphic nuclei; p ≤ 0.01) and intestinal measurements (mucosal fold and enterocyte width; p ≤ 0.01) were aggravated in fish fed the FUmix contaminated diets, with the most severe alterations being noted at week 8. Overall, the co-exposure to FUmix and DON gave rise to additive effects but showed no synergistic or antagonistic effects for the combination of DON with other Fusarium mycotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paraskevi Koletsi
- Aquaculture and Fisheries Group, Wageningen University and Research, 6708 WD, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
- Alltech Biotechnology Inc, Dunboyne, A86 X006, Ireland.
| | - Geert F Wiegertjes
- Aquaculture and Fisheries Group, Wageningen University and Research, 6708 WD, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Elisabeth A M Graat
- Adaptation Physiology Group, Wageningen University and Research, 6708 WD, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Marijn de Kool
- Aquaculture and Fisheries Group, Wageningen University and Research, 6708 WD, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Philip Lyons
- Alltech Biotechnology Inc, Dunboyne, A86 X006, Ireland
| | - Johan W Schrama
- Aquaculture and Fisheries Group, Wageningen University and Research, 6708 WD, Wageningen, The Netherlands
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3
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Liu A, Guo M, He L, Martínez MA, Martínez M, Lopez-Torres B, Martínez-Larrañaga MR, Wang X, Anadón A, Ares I. Nicotinamide N-methyltransferase protects against deoxynivalenol-induced growth inhibition by suppressing pro-inflammatory cytokine expression. Food Chem Toxicol 2022; 163:112969. [PMID: 35351591 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2022.112969] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2021] [Revised: 02/22/2022] [Accepted: 03/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Deoxynivalenol (DON) is an inevitable contaminant in cereals for infants. Indeed, children's growth retardation caused by widespread DON pollution has become a global problem that cannot be ignored. Accumulating evidence has shown that DON stunts growth in children through pro-inflammatory cytokines. An exogenous increase of methylnicotinamide, a metabolite produced by nicotinamide N-methyltransferase (NNMT), has anti-inflammatory effects, but it is not clear whether NNMT has the same effect, and the role of NNMT in DON-induced inflammation and growth impairment remains indistinct. The present research reports that NNMT is an inflammatory self-protective factor in DON-exposed L02 cells. DON promoted the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Furthermore, DON increased NNMT to reduce pro-inflammatory cytokines, including interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-11 and IL-6, and thus increased IGF-1 and cell viability, alleviating the cell growth inhibition induced by DON. Interestingly, NNMT negatively regulated the expression of IL-1β through Sirtuin type 1 (SIRT1). Collectively, these findings provide new mechanistic insights into the toxicity of DON-induced growth retardation and inflammatory responses in children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aimei Liu
- National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues (HZAU) and MAO Key Laboratory for Detection of Veterinary Drug Residues, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, 430070, China; Hanxi Key Lab. for Modernization of TCVM, College of Veterinary Medicine, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, 030801, Shanxi, China
| | - Mingyue Guo
- National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues (HZAU) and MAO Key Laboratory for Detection of Veterinary Drug Residues, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, 430070, China
| | - Lixuan He
- MOA Laboratory for Risk Assessment of Quality and Safety of Livestock and Poultry Products, Hubei, 430070, China
| | - María-Aránzazu Martínez
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, 28040, Spain
| | - Marta Martínez
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, 28040, Spain
| | - Bernardo Lopez-Torres
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, 28040, Spain
| | - María-Rosa Martínez-Larrañaga
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, 28040, Spain
| | - Xu Wang
- National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues (HZAU) and MAO Key Laboratory for Detection of Veterinary Drug Residues, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, 430070, China; MOA Laboratory for Risk Assessment of Quality and Safety of Livestock and Poultry Products, Hubei, 430070, China.
| | - Arturo Anadón
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, 28040, Spain.
| | - Irma Ares
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, 28040, Spain
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Hooft JM, Bureau DP. Deoxynivalenol: Mechanisms of action and its effects on various terrestrial and aquatic species. Food Chem Toxicol 2021; 157:112616. [PMID: 34662691 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2021.112616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2021] [Revised: 10/02/2021] [Accepted: 10/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Deoxynivalenol, a type B trichothecene mycotoxin produced by Fusarium species of fungi, is a ubiquitious contaminant of cereal grains worldwide. Chronic, low dose consumption of feeds contaminated with DON is associated with a wide range of symptoms in terrestrial and aquatic species including decreased feed intake and feed refusal, reduced weight gain, and altered nutritional efficiency. Acute, high dose exposure to DON may be associated with more severe symptoms such as vomiting, diarrhea, intestinal inflammation and gastrointestinal hemorrhage. The toxicity of DON is partly related to its ability to disrupt eukaryotic protein synthesis via binding to the peptidyl transferase site of the ribosome. Moreover, DON exerts its effects at the cellular level by activating mitogen activated protein kinases (MAPK) through a process known as the ribotoxic stress response (RSR). The outcome of DON-associated MAPK activation is dose and duration dependent; acute low dose exposure results in immunostimulation characterized by the upregulation of cytokines, chemokines and other proinflammatory-related proteins, whereas longer term exposure to higher doses generally results in apoptosis, cell cycle arrest, and immunosuppression. The order of decreasing sensitivity to DON is considered to be: swine > rats > mice > poultry ≈ ruminants. However, studies conducted within the past 10 years have demonstrated that some species of fish, such as rainbow trout, are highly sensitive to DON. The aims of this review are to explore the effects of DON on terrestrial and aquatic species as well as its mechanisms of action, metabolism, and interaction with other Fusarium mycotoxins. Notably, a considerable emphasis is placed on reviewing the effects of DON on different species of fish.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jamie M Hooft
- Wittaya Aqua International, 1 University Ave, Floor 5, Toronto, ON, M5J 2P1, Canada.
| | - Dominique P Bureau
- Wittaya Aqua International, 1 University Ave, Floor 5, Toronto, ON, M5J 2P1, Canada; Department of Animal Biosciences, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Road E, Guelph, ON, N1G 2W1, Canada
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5
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Koletsi P, Schrama JW, Graat EAM, Wiegertjes GF, Lyons P, Pietsch C. The Occurrence of Mycotoxins in Raw Materials and Fish Feeds in Europe and the Potential Effects of Deoxynivalenol (DON) on the Health and Growth of Farmed Fish Species-A Review. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:403. [PMID: 34198924 PMCID: PMC8226812 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13060403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2021] [Revised: 05/31/2021] [Accepted: 05/31/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The first part of this study evaluates the occurrence of mycotoxin patterns in feedstuffs and fish feeds. Results were extrapolated from a large data pool derived from wheat (n = 857), corn (n = 725), soybean meal (n = 139) and fish feed (n = 44) samples in European countries and based on sample analyses by liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) in the period between 2012-2019. Deoxynivalenol (DON) was readily present in corn (in 47% of the samples) > wheat (41%) > soybean meal (11%), and in aquafeeds (48%). Co-occurrence of mycotoxins was frequently observed in feedstuffs and aquafeed samples. For example, in corn, multi-mycotoxin occurrence was investigated by Spearman's correlations and odd ratios, and both showed co-occurrence of DON with its acetylated forms (3-AcDON, 15-AcDON) as well as with zearalenone (ZEN). The second part of this study summarizes the existing knowledge on the effects of DON on farmed fish species and evaluates the risk of DON exposure in fish, based on data from in vivo studies. A meta-analytical approach aimed to estimate to which extent DON affects feed intake and growth performance in fish. Corn was identified as the ingredient with the highest risk of contamination with DON and its acetylated forms, which often cannot be detected by commonly used rapid detection methods in feed mills. Periodical state-of-the-art mycotoxin analyses are essential to detect the full spectrum of mycotoxins in fish feeds aimed to prevent detrimental effects on farmed fish and subsequent economic losses for fish farmers. Because levels below the stated regulatory limits can reduce feed intake and growth performance, our results show that the risk of DON contamination is underestimated in the aquaculture industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paraskevi Koletsi
- Aquaculture and Fisheries Group, Wageningen University and Research, 6708 WD Wageningen, The Netherlands; (J.W.S.); (G.F.W.)
| | - Johan W. Schrama
- Aquaculture and Fisheries Group, Wageningen University and Research, 6708 WD Wageningen, The Netherlands; (J.W.S.); (G.F.W.)
| | - Elisabeth A. M. Graat
- Adaptation Physiology Group, Wageningen University and Research, 6708 WD Wageningen, The Netherlands;
| | - Geert F. Wiegertjes
- Aquaculture and Fisheries Group, Wageningen University and Research, 6708 WD Wageningen, The Netherlands; (J.W.S.); (G.F.W.)
| | - Philip Lyons
- Alltech Biotechnology Inc., A86 X006 Dunboyne, Ireland;
| | - Constanze Pietsch
- School of Agricultural, Forest and Food Sciences (HAFL), Applied University Berne (BFH), 3052 Zollikofen, Switzerland
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Tolosa J, Barba FJ, Pallarés N, Ferrer E. Mycotoxin Identification and In Silico Toxicity Assessment Prediction in Atlantic Salmon. Mar Drugs 2020; 18:md18120629. [PMID: 33321782 PMCID: PMC7764005 DOI: 10.3390/md18120629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2020] [Revised: 12/05/2020] [Accepted: 12/08/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The present study aimed to identify mycotoxins in edible tissues of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) using liquid chromatography coupled to hybrid quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-Q-TOF-MS). After using a non-targeted screening approach and a home-made spectral library, 233 mycotoxins were analyzed. Moreover, the occurrence of mycotoxins in fish filets was evaluated, and their potential toxicity was predicted by in silico methods. According to the obtained results, forty mycotoxins were identified in analyzed salmon samples, the predominant mycotoxins being enniatins (also rugulosin and 17 ophiobolins), commonly found in cereals and their by-products. Thus, mycotoxin carry-over can occur from feed to organs and edible tissues of cultivated fish. Moreover, the toxicity of detected mycotoxins was predicted by the in silico webserver ProTox-II, highlighting that special attention must be paid to some less reported mycotoxins due to their toxic predicted properties.
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Nogueira WV, de Oliveira FK, Garcia SDO, Sibaja KVM, Tesser MB, Garda Buffon J. Sources, quantification techniques, associated hazards, and control measures of mycotoxin contamination of aquafeed. Crit Rev Microbiol 2020; 46:26-37. [PMID: 32065532 DOI: 10.1080/1040841x.2020.1716681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
With the productive intensification of fish farming, the partial or total replacement of fishmeal by ingredients of plant origin became a reality within the feed industry, with the aim of reducing costs. However, this practice increased the impact of mycotoxin contamination. Studies have shown that mycotoxins can induce various disorders in fish, such as cellular and organic alterations, as well as impair functional and morphological development, and, in more severe cases, mortality. Thus, studies have been conducted to evaluate and develop strategies to prevent the formation of mycotoxins, as well as to induce their elimination, inactivation or reduction of their availability in feed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wesclen Vilar Nogueira
- Mycotoxin and Food Science Laboratory, School of Chemistry and Food, Federal University of Rio Grande - FURG, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Francine Kerstner de Oliveira
- Mycotoxin and Food Science Laboratory, School of Chemistry and Food, Federal University of Rio Grande - FURG, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Sabrina de Oliveira Garcia
- Mycotoxin and Food Science Laboratory, School of Chemistry and Food, Federal University of Rio Grande - FURG, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Karen Vanessa Marimón Sibaja
- Mycotoxin and Food Science Laboratory, School of Chemistry and Food, Federal University of Rio Grande - FURG, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Marcelo Borges Tesser
- Aquatic Organism Nutrition Laboratory, Institute of Oceanography, Federal University of Rio Grande - FURG, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Jaqueline Garda Buffon
- Mycotoxin and Food Science Laboratory, School of Chemistry and Food, Federal University of Rio Grande - FURG, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
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Marijani E, Kigadye E, Okoth S. Occurrence of Fungi and Mycotoxins in Fish Feeds and Their Impact on Fish Health. Int J Microbiol 2019; 2019:6743065. [PMID: 31827520 PMCID: PMC6881585 DOI: 10.1155/2019/6743065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2019] [Accepted: 10/01/2019] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The rapid population growth in developing countries has led to strong pressure on capture fisheries. However, capture fisheries have reached their maximal limits of fish production and are supplemented by farmed fish. The growth in aquaculture has led to high demand for fish feeds, which play a very important role in fish nutrition and health. Use of animal protein in fish feeds is expensive; hence, a majority of farmers from developing countries use local feed ingredients from plant origin as a source of dietary protein. However, these ingredients of plant origin provide the best natural substrates for fungi, which can be easily accompanied by mycotoxin development under suitable conditions. The locally made feed comprises ingredients such as soybeans, cottonseed cake, and wheat and maize bran which are mixed together and ground after which the compounded feed is pelleted and stored. Among the ingredients, maize and oilseeds are more susceptible for mycotoxigenic fungi compared to other ingredients. The outcomes of mycotoxin contamination in fish feeds are not different from other animal species intended for human consumption, and they are directly associated with production losses, particularly decreased weight gain and feed conversion, impaired immune system and reproductive performance, and increased fish mortality. Fish may also carry mycotoxin residues along the food chain, thus compromising human health. Hence, it is important to ensure the control of mycotoxin contamination in fish feeds, especially during the production and storage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esther Marijani
- Open University of Tanzania, P.O. Box 23409, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
| | - Emmanuel Kigadye
- Open University of Tanzania, P.O. Box 23409, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
| | - Sheila Okoth
- University of Nairobi, School of Biological Science, P.O. Box 30197-00100, Nairobi, Kenya
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Marijani E, Charo-Karisa H, Gnonlonfin GJB, Kigadye E, Okoth S. Effects of aflatoxin B 1 on reproductive performance of farmed Nile tilapia. Int J Vet Sci Med 2019; 7:35-42. [PMID: 31692918 PMCID: PMC6818110 DOI: 10.1080/23144599.2019.1678315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2019] [Revised: 09/06/2019] [Accepted: 09/29/2019] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
This study evaluated the effect of dietary aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) on growth, milt and egg quality in matured Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Triplicate groups of Nile tilapia (initial body weight 24.1 ± 2.6 g) were fed with either of four diets (Diets 1 to 4) designed to contain 0, 20, 200 and 2000 μg AFB1 kg−1 diets for 24 weeks. After 24 weeks of AFB1 exposure, growth was significantly (P <0.05) different between the control and the AFB1 exposed treatments in both sexes. No significant differences were observed in 17β-oestradiol, absolute fecundity, oocytes volume and diameters between AFB1 exposure groups and the control group. However, we observed a significant reduction in relative fecundity and gonad somatic index (GSI) in females fed 2000 μg AFB1 kg−1 diet. On the other hand, we observed significant differences (P <0.05) in gonadosomatic index (GSI), testosterone, milt count and motility between males in the control group and AFB1 treatments. We conclude that rearing Nile tilapia with aflatoxin-contaminated diets for a prolonged period affects milt quality, fecundity (at higher doses) and growth performance. This implies that for optimal seed production, provision of aflatoxin free diets should be part of the management practices in Nile tilapia hatcheries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esther Marijani
- Open University of Tanzania, Department of Food and Nutrition, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
| | | | | | - Emmanuel Kigadye
- Open University of Tanzania, Department of Food and Nutrition, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
| | - Sheila Okoth
- School of Biological Science, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
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Novak B, Rainer V, Sulyok M, Haltrich D, Schatzmayr G, Mayer E. Twenty-Eight Fungal Secondary Metabolites Detected in Pig Feed Samples: Their Occurrence, Relevance and Cytotoxic Effects In Vitro. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:E537. [PMID: 31540008 PMCID: PMC6784148 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11090537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2019] [Revised: 09/11/2019] [Accepted: 09/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Feed samples are frequently contaminated by a wide range of chemically diverse natural products, which can be determined using highly sensitive analytical techniques. Next to already well-investigated mycotoxins, unknown or unregulated fungal secondary metabolites have also been found, some of which at significant concentrations. In our study, 1141 pig feed samples were analyzed for more than 800 secondary fungal metabolites using the same LC-MS/MS method and ranked according to their prevalence. Effects on the viability of the 28 most relevant were tested on an intestinal porcine epithelial cell line (IPEC-J2). The most frequently occurring compounds were determined as being cyclo-(L-Pro-L-Tyr), moniliformin, and enniatin B, followed by enniatin B1, aurofusarin, culmorin, and enniatin A1. The main mycotoxins, deoxynivalenol and zearalenone, were found only at ranks 8 and 10. Regarding cytotoxicity, apicidin, gliotoxin, bikaverin, and beauvericin led to lower IC50 values, between 0.52 and 2.43 µM, compared to deoxynivalenol (IC50 = 2.55 µM). Significant cytotoxic effects were also seen for the group of enniatins, which occurred in up to 82.2% of the feed samples. Our study gives an overall insight into the amount of fungal secondary metabolites found in pig feed samples compared to their cytotoxic effects in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Novak
- BIOMIN Research Center, Technopark 1, 3430 Tulln, Austria.
| | | | - Michael Sulyok
- Institute of Bioanalytics and Agro-Metabolomics, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Konrad-Lorenz-Straße 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria.
| | - Dietmar Haltrich
- Food Biotechnology Laboratory, Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Muthgasse 11, 1190 Vienna, Austria.
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García-Herranz V, Valdehita A, Navas J, Fernández-Cruz M. Cytotoxicity against fish and mammalian cell lines and endocrine activity of the mycotoxins beauvericin, deoxynivalenol and ochratoxin-A. Food Chem Toxicol 2019; 127:288-297. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2019.01.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2018] [Revised: 01/10/2019] [Accepted: 01/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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12
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High contamination levels of deoxynivalenol-induced erythrocyte damage in different models. Trends Food Sci Technol 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2019.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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13
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Viegas C, Esteves L, Faria T, Pombo A, Caetano LA, Quintal-Gomes A, Twarużek M, Kosicki R, Grajewski J, Viegas S. Fungal diversity and mycotoxin distribution in echinoderm aquaculture. Mycotoxin Res 2019; 35:253-260. [DOI: 10.1007/s12550-019-00352-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2018] [Revised: 03/07/2019] [Accepted: 03/13/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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14
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Effects of dietary deoxynivalenol or ochratoxin A on performance and selected health indices in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Food Chem Toxicol 2018; 121:374-386. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2018.08.079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2018] [Revised: 08/28/2018] [Accepted: 08/31/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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15
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Comprehensive Description of Fusarium graminearum Pigments and Related Compounds. Foods 2018; 7:foods7100165. [PMID: 30301164 PMCID: PMC6209861 DOI: 10.3390/foods7100165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2018] [Revised: 10/03/2018] [Accepted: 10/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Several studies have explored in depth the biochemistry and genetics of the pigments present in Fusarium graminearum, but there is a need to discuss their relationship with the mold's observable surface color pattern variation throughout its lifecycle. Furthermore, they require basic cataloguing, including a description of their major features known so far. Colors are a viable alternative to size measurement in growth studies. When grown on yeast extract agar (YEA) at 25 °C, F. graminearum initially exhibits a whitish mycelium, developing into a yellow-orange mold by the sixth day and then turning into wine-red. The colors are likely due to accumulation of the golden yellow polyketide aurofusarin and the red rubrofusarin, but the carotenoid neurosporaxanthin also possibly plays a major role in the yellow or orange coloration. Torulene might contribute to red tones, but it perhaps ends up being converted into neurosporaxanthin. Culmorin is also present, but it does not contribute to the color, though it was initially isolated in pigment studies. Additionally, there is the 5-deoxybostrycoidin-based melanin, but it mostly occurs in the teleomorph's perithecium. There is still a need to chemically quantify the pigments throughout the lifecycle, and analyze their relationships and how much each impacts F. graminearum's surface color.
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Comparative Analysis of Zearalenone Effects on Thyroid Receptor Alpha (TRα) and Beta (TRβ) Expression in Rat Primary Cerebellar Cell Cultures. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:ijms19051440. [PMID: 29751674 PMCID: PMC5983839 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19051440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2018] [Revised: 04/20/2018] [Accepted: 05/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Thyroid receptors play an important role in postnatal brain development. Zearalenone (ZEN), a major mycotoxin of Fusarium fungi, is well known to cause serious health problems in animals and humans through various mechanisms, including the physiological pathways of thyroid hormone (TH). In the present study, we aimed to investigate the expression of thyroid receptors α (TRα) and β (TRβ) in primary cerebellar neurons in the presence or absence of glia and following ZEN treatment, using quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) and Western blot. Primary cerebellar granule cells were treated with low doses of ZEN (0.1 nM) in combination with physiologically relevant concentrations of l-thyroxine (T4), 3,3′,5-triiodo-l-thyronine (T3) and 17β-estradiol (E2). Expression levels of TRα and TRβ at mRNA and protein levels were slightly modified by ZEN administered alone; however, along with thyroid and steroid hormones, modelling the physiological conditions, expression levels of TRs varied highly depending on the given treatment. Gene expression levels were also highly modulated by the presence or absence of glial cells, with mostly contrasting effects. Our results demonstrate divergent transcriptional and translational mechanisms involved in the expression of TRs implied by ZEN and hormonal milieu, as well as culturing conditions.
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Jarolim K, Wolters K, Woelflingseder L, Pahlke G, Beisl J, Puntscher H, Braun D, Sulyok M, Warth B, Marko D. The secondary Fusarium metabolite aurofusarin induces oxidative stress, cytotoxicity and genotoxicity in human colon cells. Toxicol Lett 2017; 284:170-183. [PMID: 29248571 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2017.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2017] [Revised: 11/22/2017] [Accepted: 12/11/2017] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Aurofusarin (AURO), a dimeric naphthoquinone, is produced by Fusarium fungi. Although frequently found in food and feed, toxicological studies are limited. Hence, the in vitro toxicity of AURO was investigated in the colon adenocarcinoma cell line HT29 and the non-tumorigenic colon cells HCEC-1CT. Cytotoxic effects were found at concentrations ≥1 μM by evaluating mitochondrial activity (WST-1) and cellular proliferation (sulforhodamine B assay). 10 μM of AURO induced a decrease of cells in the S-phase, measured by flow cytometry. Confocal microscopy revealed AURO-mediated increase of intracellular p53 protein. In accordance, DNA-damage was seen in the comet assay (≥1 μM) together with enhanced levels of formamidopyrimidine-DNA-glycosylase (fpg)-sensitive sites, indicative for oxidative stress. An increase of intracellular reactive oxygen species was observed in the dichlorofluorescein (DCF) assay (≥5 μM). The GSSG/GSH ratio was elevated, but no impact on redox-sensitive Nrf2-dependent genes (Nrf2, γ-GCL, NQO1) was found at the gene expression level. However, induction of cytochrome P450 monooxygenase (CYP) 1A1 was measured at the gene expression and protein level. In conclusion, these in vitro data suggest that, when co-occurring, AURO might be considered as a potential contributor to the overall toxicity of respective Fusarium mycotoxin mixtures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katharina Jarolim
- University of Vienna, Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Währinger Straße 38, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Konstantin Wolters
- University of Vienna, Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Währinger Straße 38, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Lydia Woelflingseder
- University of Vienna, Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Währinger Straße 38, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Gudrun Pahlke
- University of Vienna, Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Währinger Straße 38, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Julia Beisl
- University of Vienna, Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Währinger Straße 38, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Hannes Puntscher
- University of Vienna, Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Währinger Straße 38, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Dominik Braun
- University of Vienna, Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Währinger Straße 38, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Michael Sulyok
- University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU), Department IFA-Tulln, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - Benedikt Warth
- University of Vienna, Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Währinger Straße 38, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Doris Marko
- University of Vienna, Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Währinger Straße 38, 1090 Vienna, Austria.
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Knutsen HK, Alexander J, Barregård L, Bignami M, Brüschweiler B, Ceccatelli S, Cottrill B, Dinovi M, Edler L, Grasl-Kraupp B, Hogstrand C, Hoogenboom LR, Nebbia CS, Petersen A, Rose M, Roudot AC, Schwerdtle T, Vleminckx C, Vollmer G, Wallace H, Dall'Asta C, Dänicke S, Eriksen GS, Altieri A, Roldán-Torres R, Oswald IP. Risks for animal health related to the presence of zearalenone and its modified forms in feed. EFSA J 2017; 15:e04851. [PMID: 32625539 PMCID: PMC7009830 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2017.4851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Zearalenone (ZEN), a mycotoxin primarily produced by Fusarium fungi, occurs predominantly in cereal grains. The European Commission asked EFSA for a scientific opinion on the risk to animal health related to ZEN and its modified forms in feed. Modified forms of ZEN occurring in feed include phase I metabolites α‐zearalenol (α‐ZEL), β‐zearalenol (β‐ZEL), α‐zearalanol (α‐ZAL), β‐zearalanol (β‐ZAL), zearalanone (ZAN) and phase II conjugates. ZEN has oestrogenic activity and the oestrogenic activity of the modified forms of ZEN differs considerably. For ZEN, the EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM) established no observed adverse effect levels (NOAELs) for pig (piglets and gilts), poultry (chicken and fattening turkeys), sheep and fish (extrapolated from carp) and lowest observed effect level (LOAEL) for dogs. No reference points could be established for cattle, ducks, goats, horses, rabbits, mink and cats. For modified forms, no reference points could be established for any animal species and relative potency factors previously established from rodents by the CONTAM Panel in 2016 were used. The dietary exposure was estimated on 17,706 analytical results with high proportions of left‐censored data (ZEN about 60%, ZAN about 70%, others close to 100%). Samples for ZEN were collected between 2001 and 2015 in 25 different European countries, whereas samples for the modified forms were collected mostly between 2013 and 2015 from three Member States. Based on exposure estimates, the risk of adverse health effects of feed containing ZEN was considered extremely low for poultry and low for sheep, dog, pig and fish. The same conclusions also apply to the sum of ZEN and its modified forms.
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