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Almasoud I, Charlton FW, Finke S, Barr JN, Mankouri J. Internalization of rabies virus glycoprotein differs between pathogenic and attenuated virus strains. J Gen Virol 2023; 104:001935. [PMID: 38063294 PMCID: PMC10770930 DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.001935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2023] [Accepted: 11/24/2023] [Indexed: 12/18/2023] Open
Abstract
The zoonotic rabies virus (RABV) is a non-segmented negative-sense RNA virus classified within the family Rhabdoviridae, and is the most common aetiological agent responsible for fatal rabies disease. The RABV glycoprotein (G) forms trimeric spikes that protrude from RABV virions and mediate virus attachment, entry and spread, and is a major determinant of RABV pathogenesis. A range of RABV strains exist that are highly pathogenic in part due to their ability to evade host immune detection. However, some strains are disease-attenuated and can be cleared by host defences. A detailed molecular understanding of how strain variation relates to pathogenesis is currently lacking. Here, we reveal key differences in the trafficking profiles of RABV-G proteins from the challenge virus standard strain (CVS-11) and a highly attenuated vaccine strain SAD-B19 (SAD). We show that CVS-G traffics to the cell surface and undergoes rapid internalization through both clathrin- and cholesterol-dependent endocytic pathways. In contrast, SAD-G remains resident at the plasma membrane and internalizes at a significantly slower rate. Through engineering hybrids of CVS-G and SAD-G, we show that the cytoplasmic tail of CVS-G is the key determinant of these different internalization profiles. Alanine scanning further revealed that mutation of Y497 in CVS-G (H497 in SAD-G) could reduce the rate of internalization to SAD-G levels. Together, these data reveal new phenotypic differences between CVS-G and SAD-G proteins that may contribute to altered in vivo pathogenicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ibrahim Almasoud
- School of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK
- Present address: Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Kuwait University, Kuwait City, Kuwait
| | - Frank W. Charlton
- School of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK
| | - Stefan Finke
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (FLI), Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - John N. Barr
- School of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK
| | - Jamel Mankouri
- School of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK
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2
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Liu J, Li W, Yu D, Jin R, Hou H, Ling X, Kiflu AB, Wei X, Yang X, Li X, He Y, Luo TR. Transcriptomic Analysis of mRNA Expression Profiles in the Microglia of Mouse Brains Infected with Rabies Viruses of Varying Virulence. Viruses 2023; 15:1223. [PMID: 37376523 DOI: 10.3390/v15061223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2023] [Revised: 05/09/2023] [Accepted: 05/19/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Rabies is a lethal encephalitis caused by the rabies virus (RABV) with a fatality rate near 100% after the onset of clinical symptoms in humans and animals. Microglia are resident immune cells in the central nervous system. Few studies have been conducted on the functional role of microglia in RABV infection. Here, we performed a transcriptomic analysis of mRNA expression profiles in the microglia of mouse brains intracerebrally infected with RABV. We successfully isolated single microglial cells from the mouse brains. The survival rate of dissociated microglial cells was 81.91%-96.7%, and the purity was 88.3%. Transcriptomic analysis revealed 22,079 differentially expressed mRNAs identified in the microglia of mouse brains infected with RABV strains (rRC-HL, GX074, and CVS-24) of varying virulence at 4 and 7 days post-infection (dpi) compared to the control group. The numbers of DEGs versus the control at 4 and 7 dpi in mice infected with rRC-HL, GX074, and CVS-24 were 3622 and 4590, 265 and 4901, and 4079 and 6337. The GO enrichment analysis showed that response to stress, response to external stimulus, regulation of response to stimulus, and immune system process were abundant during RABV infection. The KEGG analysis indicated that the Tlr, Tnf, RIG-I, NOD, NF-κB, MAPK, and Jak-STAT signaling pathways were involved in RABV infection at both 4 and 7 dpi. However, some phagocytosis and cell signal transduction processes, such as endocytosis, p53, phospholipase D, and oxidative phosphorylation signaling pathways, were only expressed at 7 dpi. The involvement of the Tnf and Tlr signaling pathways prompted us to construct a protein-protein interaction (PPI) network of these pathways. The PPI revealed 8 DEGs, including Mmp9, Jun, Pik3r1, and Mapk12. Notably, Il-1b interacted with Tnf and Il-6 with combined scores of 0.973 and 0.981, respectively. RABV causes significant changes in mRNA expression profiles in the microglia in mice. 22,079 differentially expressed mRNAs were identified in the microglia of mice infected with RABV strains of varying virulence at 4 and 7 dpi. The DEGs were evaluated using GO, KEGG, and PPI network analysis. Many immune pathways were up-regulated in RABV-infected groups. The findings will help elucidate the microglial molecular mechanisms of cellular metabolism dysregulated by RABV and may provide important information for investigating RABV pathogenesis and therapeutic methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jundan Liu
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-Bioresources, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China
- College of Animal Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China
| | - Wangchang Li
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-Bioresources, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China
- College of Animal Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China
| | - Dongling Yu
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-Bioresources, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China
- College of Animal Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China
| | - Rong Jin
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-Bioresources, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China
- College of Animal Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China
| | - Hualin Hou
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-Bioresources, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China
- College of Animal Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China
| | - Xiaoqing Ling
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-Bioresources, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China
- College of Animal Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China
| | - Abraha Bahlbi Kiflu
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-Bioresources, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China
- College of Animal Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China
| | - Xiankai Wei
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Animal Breeding, Disease Control and Prevention, Nanning 530004, China
| | - Xiaogan Yang
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-Bioresources, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China
- College of Animal Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China
| | - Xiaoning Li
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-Bioresources, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China
- College of Animal Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Animal Breeding, Disease Control and Prevention, Nanning 530004, China
- Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region Engineering Research Center of Veterinary Biologics, Nanning 530004, China
| | - Yongming He
- School of Life Science and Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan 528225, China
| | - Ting Rong Luo
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-Bioresources, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China
- College of Animal Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Animal Breeding, Disease Control and Prevention, Nanning 530004, China
- Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region Engineering Research Center of Veterinary Biologics, Nanning 530004, China
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3
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Zhao C, Gao J, Wang Y, Ji L, Qin H, Hu W, Yang Y. A Novel Rabies Vaccine Based on a Recombinant Bovine Herpes Virus Type 1 Expressing Rabies Virus Glycoprotein. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:931043. [PMID: 35755997 PMCID: PMC9213812 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.931043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2022] [Accepted: 05/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Rabies is a highly prevalent zoonotic disease and a public health threat worldwide. Currently licensed rabies vaccines are effective but less is known which would protect cattle. This study describes the construction of a novel recombinant bovine herpes virus type I (BHV-1) expressing rabies virus glycoprotein (RABV G) instead of its gE glycoprotein (gE) by CRISPR-Cas9 and homologous recombination technology (BHV-1-ΔgE-G). Insertion of the RABV G gene is stable after 20 rounds of in vitro passaging and the recombinant virus replicates to high titers in MDBK cells. The RABV G expresses in the recombinant virus-infected cells and on the virion surface of BHV-1-ΔgE-G. One single immunization with BHV-1-ΔgE-G-activated dendritic cells (DCs) and B cells furthermore induced a protective immune response in mice against severe lethal challenge infection. A protective level of RABV-specific virus-neutralizing antibody (VNA) was detected in intramuscular immunized mice and cattle without any clinical symptoms. This research demonstrated that the BHV-1 vector-based RABV vaccine is a potential candidate for cattle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caiquan Zhao
- The State Key Laboratory of Reproductive Regulation and Breeding of Grassland Livestock, School of Life Sciences, Inner Mongolia University, Hohhot, China.,School of Biological Science and Technology, Baotou Teachers' College, Baotou, China
| | - Jie Gao
- The State Key Laboratory of Reproductive Regulation and Breeding of Grassland Livestock, School of Life Sciences, Inner Mongolia University, Hohhot, China
| | - Yongzhi Wang
- The State Key Laboratory of Reproductive Regulation and Breeding of Grassland Livestock, School of Life Sciences, Inner Mongolia University, Hohhot, China
| | - Lina Ji
- The State Key Laboratory of Reproductive Regulation and Breeding of Grassland Livestock, School of Life Sciences, Inner Mongolia University, Hohhot, China
| | - Hui Qin
- The State Key Laboratory of Reproductive Regulation and Breeding of Grassland Livestock, School of Life Sciences, Inner Mongolia University, Hohhot, China
| | - Wei Hu
- The State Key Laboratory of Reproductive Regulation and Breeding of Grassland Livestock, School of Life Sciences, Inner Mongolia University, Hohhot, China
| | - Yang Yang
- The State Key Laboratory of Reproductive Regulation and Breeding of Grassland Livestock, School of Life Sciences, Inner Mongolia University, Hohhot, China
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Sultan S, Ahmed SAH, Abdelazeem MW, Hassan S. Molecular characterisation of rabies virus detected in livestock animals in the southern part of Egypt during 2018 and 2019. Acta Vet Hung 2021; 69:80-87. [PMID: 33764896 DOI: 10.1556/004.2021.00005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2020] [Accepted: 01/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Brain samples were collected from 33 animals of different species, including buffalo, cattle, dog, donkey, fox and wolf, that had been suspected to be infected by rabies virus (RABV) in different geographical regions of Aswan and Luxor governorates in Egypt. The samples were submitted for histopathological examination and the presence of the nucleic acid and antigens of RABV was tested by RT-PCR and indirect fluorescent antibody technique (IFAT), respectively. Sixteen samples were found positive by all the three examinations. Three samples were selected for further study from animals in which the highest virus loads were detected. The partial sequence of the RABV N gene was determined and analysed from the samples of a buffalo, a cow and a donkey. The viruses in the samples were found to share 95-98% and 95-97% nucleotide and amino acid sequence identities, respectively. In comparison to reference sequences, a few amino acid substitutions occurred in the N protein antigenic sites I and IV in the immunodominant epitopes of the viruses detected in the cow and the donkey but not in the one from the buffalo. The phylogenetic analysis revealed that the RABVs sequenced from the samples belonged to genotype 1, Africa-4 clade, and formed two distinct sub-clades within the Egyptian clade. These findings indicate the circulation of RABV among livestock animals in the southern part of Egypt and raise public health concerns. The amino acid changes detected in this work may contribute to the antigenic diversification of RABVs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Serageldeen Sultan
- 1Department of Microbiology, Virology Division, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, South Valley University, 83523, Qena, Egypt
| | | | - Mohamed Wael Abdelazeem
- 3Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, South Valley University, Qena, Egypt
| | - Sabry Hassan
- 4Department of Biology, College of Science, Taif University, Taif, Saudi Arabia
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Li C, Wang Y, Liu H, Zhang X, Baolige D, Zhao S, Hu W, Yang Y. Change in the Single Amino Acid Site 83 in Rabies Virus Glycoprotein Enhances the BBB Permeability and Reduces Viral Pathogenicity. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 8:632957. [PMID: 33634109 PMCID: PMC7900495 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2020.632957] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2020] [Accepted: 12/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Lab-attenuated rabies virus (RABV) is a highly cellular adaptation and less pathogenic than wild-type RABV. However, the molecular mechanisms that regulate the cellular adaptation and pathogenicity remain obscure. In this work, we isolated a wild-type RABV (CNIM1701) from a rabid bovine in northern China. The original CNIM1701 was lethal in adult mice and restricted replication in cell cultures. After 20 serial passages in the brains of suckling mice, the virus was renamed CNIM1701-P20, which was safe in adult mice and replicated well in cell cultures. In addition, sequence comparison analysis of the original CNIM1701 and CNIM1701-P20 identified 2 amino acid substitutions on G protein (Lys83 → Arg83 and Pro367 → Ser 367) related to pathogenesis and cellular adaptation. Using site-directed mutagenesis to exchange Lys83 with Arg83 and Pro367 with Ser 367 in the G protein of the RABV SAD strain, the pathogenicity of rSAD-K83R was significantly decreased. Our data indicate that the decreased pathogenicity of rSAD-K83R is due to increasing the expression of RABV-G, which also induced a higher level of apoptosis in infected cells. Furthermore, the K83 mutation induced high expression of MMP-2 and MMP-9 on DCs and promoted blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability. These results demonstrate that the pathogenesis of RABV is partially dependent on G expression and BBB permeability, which may help in the design and development of highly safe, live-RABV vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunfu Li
- The State Key Laboratory of Reproductive Regulation and Breeding of Grassland Livestock, School of Life Sciences, Inner Mongolia University, Hohhot, China
| | - Yongzhi Wang
- The State Key Laboratory of Reproductive Regulation and Breeding of Grassland Livestock, School of Life Sciences, Inner Mongolia University, Hohhot, China
| | - Huiting Liu
- The State Key Laboratory of Reproductive Regulation and Breeding of Grassland Livestock, School of Life Sciences, Inner Mongolia University, Hohhot, China
| | - Xinghua Zhang
- The State Key Laboratory of Reproductive Regulation and Breeding of Grassland Livestock, School of Life Sciences, Inner Mongolia University, Hohhot, China
| | - Dalai Baolige
- Veterinary Research Institution, Inner Mongolia Academy of Agricultural and Animal Husbandry Sciences, Hohhot, China
| | - Shihua Zhao
- Veterinary Research Institution, Inner Mongolia Academy of Agricultural and Animal Husbandry Sciences, Hohhot, China
| | - Wei Hu
- The State Key Laboratory of Reproductive Regulation and Breeding of Grassland Livestock, School of Life Sciences, Inner Mongolia University, Hohhot, China
| | - Yang Yang
- The State Key Laboratory of Reproductive Regulation and Breeding of Grassland Livestock, School of Life Sciences, Inner Mongolia University, Hohhot, China
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Rohde RE, Rupprecht CE. Update on lyssaviruses and rabies: will past progress play as prologue in the near term towards future elimination? Fac Rev 2020; 9:9. [PMID: 33659941 PMCID: PMC7886060 DOI: 10.12703/b/9-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Rabies is an ancient, much-feared, and neglected infectious disease. Caused by pathogens in the family Rhabdoviridae, genus Lyssavirus, and distributed globally, this viral zoonosis results in tens of thousands of human fatalities and millions of exposures annually. All mammals are believed susceptible, but only certain taxa act as reservoirs. Dependence upon direct routing to, replication within, and passage from the central nervous system serves as a basic viral strategy for perpetuation. By a combination of stealth and subversion, lyssaviruses are quintessential neurotropic agents and cause an acute, progressive encephalitis. No treatment exists, so prevention is the key. Although not a disease considered for eradication, something of a modern rebirth has been occurring within the field as of late with regard to detection, prevention, and management as well as applied research. For example, within the past decade, new lyssaviruses have been characterized; sensitive and specific diagnostics have been optimized; pure, potent, safe, and efficacious human biologics have improved human prophylaxis; regional efforts have controlled canine rabies by mass immunization; wildlife rabies has been controlled by oral rabies vaccination over large geographic areas in Europe and North America; and debate has resumed over the controversial topic of therapy. Based upon such progress to date, there are certain expectations for the next 10 years. These include pathogen discovery, to uncover additional lyssaviruses in the Old World; laboratory-based surveillance enhancement by simplified, rapid testing; anti-viral drug appearance, based upon an improved appreciation of viral pathobiology and host response; and improvements to canine rabies elimination regionally throughout Africa, Asia, and the Americas by application of the best technical, organizational, economic, and socio-political practices. Significantly, anticipated Gavi support will enable improved access of human rabies vaccines in lesser developed countries at a national level, with integrated bite management, dose-sparing regimens, and a 1 week vaccination schedule.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodney E Rohde
- Clinical Laboratory Science, Texas State University, San Marcos, TX, 78666, USA
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Yang SS, Wang C, Xiao J, Yu X, Shang W, Chen DDY, Gu ZY. Highly efficient enrichment of N-glycopeptides by two-dimensional Hf-based metal–organic framework nanosheets. Analyst 2020; 145:4432-4435. [DOI: 10.1039/d0an00647e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
2-D Hf-BTB nanosheets were explored as efficient materials for the capture of glycopeptides from the biosamples in proteomics analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shi-Shu Yang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Biofunctional Materials
- Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Biomedical Functional Materials
- College of Chemistry and Materials Science
- Nanjing Normal University
- Nanjing 210023
| | - Chen Wang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Biofunctional Materials
- Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Biomedical Functional Materials
- College of Chemistry and Materials Science
- Nanjing Normal University
- Nanjing 210023
| | - Jing Xiao
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Biofunctional Materials
- Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Biomedical Functional Materials
- College of Chemistry and Materials Science
- Nanjing Normal University
- Nanjing 210023
| | - Xizhong Yu
- Key Laboratory for Metabolic Diseases in Chinese Medicine
- First College of Clinical Medicine
- Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine
- Nanjing 210023
- China
| | - Wenbin Shang
- Key Laboratory for Metabolic Diseases in Chinese Medicine
- First College of Clinical Medicine
- Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine
- Nanjing 210023
- China
| | - David Da Yong Chen
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Biofunctional Materials
- Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Biomedical Functional Materials
- College of Chemistry and Materials Science
- Nanjing Normal University
- Nanjing 210023
| | - Zhi-Yuan Gu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Biofunctional Materials
- Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Biomedical Functional Materials
- College of Chemistry and Materials Science
- Nanjing Normal University
- Nanjing 210023
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Smith SP, Wu G, Fooks AR, Ma J, Banyard AC. Trying to treat the untreatable: experimental approaches to clear rabies virus infection from the CNS. J Gen Virol 2019; 100:1171-1186. [PMID: 31237530 DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.001269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Rabies virus causes an invariably fatal encephalitis following the onset of clinical disease. Despite the availability of safe and effective vaccines, the clinical stages of rabies encephalitis remain untreatable, with few survivors being documented. A principal obstacle to the treatment of rabies is the neurotropic nature of the virus, with the blood-brain barrier size exclusion limit rendering the delivery of antiviral drugs and molecules to the central nervous system inherently problematic. This review focuses on efforts to try and overcome barriers to molecule delivery to treat clinical rabies and overviews current progress in the development of experimental live rabies virus vaccines that may have future applications in the treatment of clinical rabies, including the attenuation of rabies virus vectors through either the duplication or mutation of existing genes or the incorporation of non-viral elements within the genome. Rabies post-infection treatment (PIT) remains the holy grail of rabies research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel P Smith
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector-borne Diseases Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK.,Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's Hospital Medical School, University of London, London, UK
| | - Guanghui Wu
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector-borne Diseases Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Anthony R Fooks
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector-borne Diseases Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK.,Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's Hospital Medical School, University of London, London, UK.,Department of Clinical Infection, Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Julian Ma
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's Hospital Medical School, University of London, London, UK
| | - Ashley C Banyard
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's Hospital Medical School, University of London, London, UK.,School of Life Sciences, University of West Sussex, Falmer, West Sussex, UK.,Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector-borne Diseases Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
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