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Jaha B, Schenkel CD, Jörimann L, Huber M, Zaheri M, Neumann K, Leemann C, Calmy A, Cavassini M, Kouyos RD, Günthard HF, Metzner KJ. Prevalence of HIV-1 drug resistance mutations in proviral DNA in the Swiss HIV Cohort Study, a retrospective study from 1995 to 2018. J Antimicrob Chemother 2023; 78:2323-2334. [PMID: 37545164 PMCID: PMC10477134 DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkad240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2023] [Accepted: 07/19/2023] [Indexed: 08/08/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Genotypic resistance testing (GRT) is routinely performed upon diagnosis of HIV-1 infection or during virological failure using plasma viral RNA. An alternative source for GRT could be cellular HIV-1 DNA. OBJECTIVES A substantial number of participants in the Swiss HIV Cohort Study (SHCS) never received GRT. We applied a method that enables access to the near full-length proviral HIV-1 genome without requiring detectable viraemia. METHODS Nine hundred and sixty-two PBMC specimens were received. Our two-step nested PCR protocol was applied to generate two overlapping long-range amplicons of the HIV-1 genome, sequenced by next-generation sequencing (NGS) and analysed by MinVar, a pipeline to detect drug resistance mutations (DRMs). RESULTS Six hundred and eighty-one (70.8%) of the samples were successfully amplified, sequenced and analysed by MinVar. Only partial information of the pol gene was contained in 82/681 (12%), probably due to naturally occurring deletions in the proviral sequence. All common HIV-1 subtypes were successfully sequenced. We detected at least one major DRM at high frequency (≥15%) in 331/599 (55.3%) individuals. Excluding APOBEC-signature (G-to-A mutation) DRMs, 145/599 (24.2%) individuals carried at least one major DRM. RT-inhibitor DRMs were most prevalent. The experienced time on ART was significantly longer in DRM carriers (P = 0.001) independent of inclusion or exclusion of APOBEC-signature DRMs. CONCLUSIONS We successfully applied a reliable and efficient method to analyse near full-length HIV-1 proviral DNA and investigated DRMs in individuals with undetectable or low viraemia. Additionally, our data underscore the need for new computational tools to exclude APOBEC-related hypermutated NGS sequence reads for reporting DRMs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bashkim Jaha
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital Zurich, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Corinne D Schenkel
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital Zurich, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Lisa Jörimann
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital Zurich, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland
- Institute of Medical Virology, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Michael Huber
- Institute of Medical Virology, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Maryam Zaheri
- Institute of Medical Virology, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Kathrin Neumann
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital Zurich, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland
- Institute of Medical Virology, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Christine Leemann
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital Zurich, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland
- Institute of Medical Virology, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Alexandra Calmy
- Division of Infectious Diseases, University Hospital Geneva, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Matthias Cavassini
- Division of Infectious Diseases, University Hospital Lausanne, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Roger D Kouyos
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital Zurich, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland
- Institute of Medical Virology, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Huldrych F Günthard
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital Zurich, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland
- Institute of Medical Virology, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Karin J Metzner
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital Zurich, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland
- Institute of Medical Virology, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
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Eltalkhawy YM, Takahashi N, Ariumi Y, Shimizu J, Miyazaki K, Senju S, Suzu S. iPS cell-derived model to study the interaction between tissue macrophage and HIV-1. J Leukoc Biol 2023; 114:53-67. [PMID: 36976024 DOI: 10.1093/jleuko/qiad024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2022] [Revised: 01/18/2023] [Accepted: 02/13/2023] [Indexed: 03/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite effective antiretroviral therapy, HIV-1 persists in cells, including macrophages, which is an obstacle to cure. However, the precise role of macrophages in HIV-1 infection remains unclear because they reside in tissues that are not easily accessible. Monocyte-derived macrophages are widely used as a model in which peripheral blood monocytes are cultured and differentiated into macrophages. However, another model is needed because recent studies revealed that most macrophages in adult tissues originate from the yolk sac and fetal liver precursors rather than monocytes, and the embryonic macrophages possess a self-renewal (proliferating) capacity that monocyte-derived macrophages lack. Here, we show that human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived immortalized macrophage-like cells are a useful self-renewing macrophage model. They proliferate in a cytokine-dependent manner, retain macrophage functions, support HIV-1 replication, and exhibit infected monocyte-derived macrophage-like phenotypes, such as enhanced tunneling nanotube formation and cell motility, as well as resistance to a viral cytopathic effect. However, several differences are also observed between monocyte-derived macrophages and induced pluripotent stem cell-derived immortalized macrophage-like cells, most of which can be explained by the proliferation of induced pluripotent stem cell-derived immortalized macrophage-like cells. For instance, proviruses with large internal deletions, which increased over time in individuals receiving antiretroviral therapy, are enriched more rapidly in induced pluripotent stem cell-derived immortalized macrophage-like cells. Interestingly, inhibition of viral transcription by HIV-1-suppressing agents is more obvious in induced pluripotent stem cell-derived immortalized macrophage-like cells. Collectively, our present study proposes that the model of induced pluripotent stem cell-derived immortalized macrophage-like cells is suitable for mimicking the interplay between HIV-1 and self-renewing tissue macrophages, the newly recognized major population in most tissues that cannot be fully modeled by monocyte-derived macrophages alone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Youssef M Eltalkhawy
- Joint Research Center for Human Retrovirus Infection, Kumamoto University, Honjo 2-2-1, Kumamoto-city, Kumamoto 860-0811, Japan
| | - Naofumi Takahashi
- Joint Research Center for Human Retrovirus Infection, Kumamoto University, Honjo 2-2-1, Kumamoto-city, Kumamoto 860-0811, Japan
| | - Yasuo Ariumi
- Joint Research Center for Human Retrovirus Infection, Kumamoto University, Honjo 2-2-1, Kumamoto-city, Kumamoto 860-0811, Japan
| | - Jun Shimizu
- MiCAN Technologies Inc., Goryo-ohara 1-36, Kyoto 615-8245, Japan
| | - Kazuo Miyazaki
- MiCAN Technologies Inc., Goryo-ohara 1-36, Kyoto 615-8245, Japan
| | - Satoru Senju
- Department of Immunogenetics, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Honjo 2-2-1, Kumamoto-city, Kumamoto 860-0811, Japan
| | - Shinya Suzu
- Joint Research Center for Human Retrovirus Infection, Kumamoto University, Honjo 2-2-1, Kumamoto-city, Kumamoto 860-0811, Japan
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Nolan DJ, Rose R, Zhang R, Leong A, Fogel GB, Scholte LLS, Bethony JM, Bracci P, Lamers SL, McGrath MS. The Persistence of HIV Diversity, Transcription, and Nef Protein in Kaposi's Sarcoma Tumors during Antiretroviral Therapy. Viruses 2022; 14:v14122774. [PMID: 36560778 PMCID: PMC9782636 DOI: 10.3390/v14122774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2022] [Revised: 12/05/2022] [Accepted: 12/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Epidemic Kaposi's sarcoma (KS), defined by co-infection with Human Herpes Virus 8 (HHV-8) and the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), is a major cause of mortality in sub-Saharan Africa. Antiretroviral therapy (ART) significantly reduces the risk of developing KS, and for those with KS, tumors frequently resolve with ART alone. However, for unknown reasons, a significant number of KS cases do not resolve and can progress to death. To explore how HIV responds to ART in the KS tumor microenvironment, we sequenced HIV env-nef found in DNA and RNA isolated from plasma, peripheral blood mononuclear cells, and tumor biopsies, before and after ART, in four Ugandan study participants who had unresponsive or progressive KS after 180-250 days of ART. We performed immunohistochemistry experiments to detect viral proteins in matched formalin-fixed tumor biopsies. Our sequencing results showed that HIV diversity and RNA expression in KS tumors are maintained after ART, despite undetectable plasma viral loads. The presence of spliced HIV transcripts in KS tumors after ART was consistent with a transcriptionally active viral reservoir. Immunohistochemistry staining found colocalization of HIV Nef protein and tissue-resident macrophages in the KS tumors. Overall, our results demonstrated that even after ART reduced plasma HIV viral load to undetectable levels and restored immune function, HIV in KS tumors continues to be transcriptionally and translationally active, which could influence tumor maintenance and progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- David J. Nolan
- Bioinfoexperts, LLC, Thibodaux, LA 70301, USA
- Correspondence:
| | | | - Rongzhen Zhang
- Departments of Laboratory Medicine, Pathology and Medicine, The University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94110, USA
| | - Alan Leong
- Departments of Laboratory Medicine, Pathology and Medicine, The University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94110, USA
| | | | - Larissa L. S. Scholte
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Tropical Medicine, The George Washington University, Washington, DC 20037, USA
| | - Jeffrey M. Bethony
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Tropical Medicine, The George Washington University, Washington, DC 20037, USA
| | - Paige Bracci
- The AIDS and Cancer Specimen Resource, San Francisco, CA 94110, USA
| | | | - Michael S. McGrath
- Departments of Laboratory Medicine, Pathology and Medicine, The University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94110, USA
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Renelt S, Schult-Dietrich P, Baldauf HM, Stein S, Kann G, Bickel M, Kielland-Kaisen U, Bonig H, Marschalek R, Rieger MA, Dietrich U, Duerr R. HIV-1 Infection of Long-Lived Hematopoietic Precursors In Vitro and In Vivo. Cells 2022; 11:cells11192968. [PMID: 36230931 PMCID: PMC9562211 DOI: 10.3390/cells11192968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2022] [Revised: 09/13/2022] [Accepted: 09/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Latent reservoirs in human-immunodeficiency-virus-1 (HIV-1)-infected individuals represent a major obstacle in finding a cure for HIV-1. Hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs) have been described as potential HIV-1 targets, but their roles as HIV-1 reservoirs remain controversial. Here we provide additional evidence for the susceptibility of several distinct HSPC subpopulations to HIV-1 infection in vitro and in vivo. In vitro infection experiments of HSPCs were performed with different HIV-1 Env-pseudotyped lentiviral particles and with replication-competent HIV-1. Low-level infection/transduction of HSPCs, including hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) and multipotent progenitors (MPP), was observed, preferentially via CXCR4, but also via CCR5-mediated entry. Multi-lineage colony formation in methylcellulose assays and repetitive replating of transduced cells provided functional proof of susceptibility of primitive HSPCs to HIV-1 infection. Further, the access to bone marrow samples from HIV-positive individuals facilitated the detection of HIV-1 gag cDNA copies in CD34+ cells from eight (out of eleven) individuals, with at least six of them infected with CCR5-tropic HIV-1 strains. In summary, our data confirm that primitive HSPC subpopulations are susceptible to CXCR4- and CCR5-mediated HIV-1 infection in vitro and in vivo, which qualifies these cells to contribute to the HIV-1 reservoir in patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Renelt
- Georg-Speyer-Haus, Institute for Tumor Biology and Experimental Therapy, 60596 Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Patrizia Schult-Dietrich
- Georg-Speyer-Haus, Institute for Tumor Biology and Experimental Therapy, 60596 Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Hanna-Mari Baldauf
- Max von Pettenkofer Institute & Gene Center, Virology, National Reference Center for Retroviruses, Faculty of Medicine, LMU München, 81377 Munich, Germany
- Institute of Medical Virology, Goethe University, 60596 Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Stefan Stein
- Georg-Speyer-Haus, Institute for Tumor Biology and Experimental Therapy, 60596 Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Gerrit Kann
- Department of Medicine II/Infectious Diseases, Goethe University Hospital, 60596 Frankfurt, Germany
- Infektiologikum, Center for Infectious Diseases, 60596 Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Markus Bickel
- Infektiologikum, Center for Infectious Diseases, 60596 Frankfurt, Germany
| | | | - Halvard Bonig
- Institute for Transfusion Medicine and Immunohematology, German Red Cross Blood Donor Service Baden-Württemberg-Hessen, Goethe University, 60528 Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Rolf Marschalek
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Biology, Goethe University, 60438 Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Michael A. Rieger
- Department of Medicine, Hematology/Oncology, Goethe University Hospital, 60590 Frankfurt, Germany
- German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), German Cancer Research Center, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
- Frankfurt Cancer Institute, 60596 Frankfurt, Germany
- Cardio-Pulmonary Institute, 60596 Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Ursula Dietrich
- Georg-Speyer-Haus, Institute for Tumor Biology and Experimental Therapy, 60596 Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Ralf Duerr
- Georg-Speyer-Haus, Institute for Tumor Biology and Experimental Therapy, 60596 Frankfurt, Germany
- Department of Microbiology, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016, USA
- Correspondence:
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Abstract
Genetically-characterizing full-length HIV-1 RNA is critical for identifying genetically-intact genomes and for comparing these RNA genomes to proviral DNA. We have developed a method for sequencing plasma-derived RNA using long-range sequencing (PRLS assay; ∼8.3 kb from gag to the 3′ end or ∼5 kb from integrase to the 3′ end). We employed the gag-3′ PRLS assay to sequence HIV-1 RNA genomes from ART-naive participants during acute/early infection (n = 6) or chronic infection (n = 2). On average, only 65% of plasma-derived genomes were genetically-intact. Defects were found in all genomic regions but were concentrated in env and pol. We compared these genomes to near-full-length proviral sequences from paired peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) samples for the acute/early group and found that near-identical (>99.98% identical) sequences were identified only during acute infection. For three participants who initiated therapy during acute infection, we used the int-3′ PRLS assay to sequence plasma-derived genomes from an analytical treatment interruption and identified 100% identical genomes between pretherapy and rebound time points. The PRLS assay provides a new level of sensitivity for understanding the genetic composition of plasma-derived HIV-1 RNA from viremic individuals either pretherapy or after treatment interruption, which will be invaluable in assessing possible HIV-1 curative strategies. IMPORTANCE We developed novel plasma-derived RNA using long-range sequencing assays (PRLS assay; 8.3 kb, gag-3′, and 5.0 kb, int-3′). Employing the gag-3′ PRLS assay, we found that 26% to 51% of plasma-derived genomes are genetically-defective, largely as a result of frameshift mutations and deletions. These genetic defects were concentrated in the env region compared to gag and pol, likely a reflection of viral immune escape in env during untreated HIV-1 infection. Employing the int-3′ PRLS assay, we found that analytical treatment interruption (ATI) plasma-derived sequences were identical and genetically-intact. Several sequences from the ATI plasma samples were identical to viral sequences from pretherapy plasma and PBMC samples, indicating that HIV-1 reservoirs established prior to therapy contribute to viral rebound during an ATI. Therefore, near-full-length sequencing of HIV-1 particles is required to gain an accurate picture of the genetic landscape of plasma HIV-1 virions in studies of HIV-1 replication and persistence.
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Gibson KM, Steiner MC, Rentia U, Bendall ML, Pérez-Losada M, Crandall KA. Validation of Variant Assembly Using HAPHPIPE with Next-Generation Sequence Data from Viruses. Viruses 2020; 12:E758. [PMID: 32674515 PMCID: PMC7412389 DOI: 10.3390/v12070758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2020] [Revised: 07/03/2020] [Accepted: 07/06/2020] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Next-generation sequencing (NGS) offers a powerful opportunity to identify low-abundance, intra-host viral sequence variants, yet the focus of many bioinformatic tools on consensus sequence construction has precluded a thorough analysis of intra-host diversity. To take full advantage of the resolution of NGS data, we developed HAplotype PHylodynamics PIPEline (HAPHPIPE), an open-source tool for the de novo and reference-based assembly of viral NGS data, with both consensus sequence assembly and a focus on the quantification of intra-host variation through haplotype reconstruction. We validate and compare the consensus sequence assembly methods of HAPHPIPE to those of two alternative software packages, HyDRA and Geneious, using simulated HIV and empirical HIV, HCV, and SARS-CoV-2 datasets. Our validation methods included read mapping, genetic distance, and genetic diversity metrics. In simulated NGS data, HAPHPIPE generated pol consensus sequences significantly closer to the true consensus sequence than those produced by HyDRA and Geneious and performed comparably to Geneious for HIV gp120 sequences. Furthermore, using empirical data from multiple viruses, we demonstrate that HAPHPIPE can analyze larger sequence datasets due to its greater computational speed. Therefore, we contend that HAPHPIPE provides a more user-friendly platform for users with and without bioinformatics experience to implement current best practices for viral NGS assembly than other currently available options.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keylie M. Gibson
- Computational Biology Institute, Milken Institute School of Public Health, The George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052, USA; (M.C.S.); (U.R.); (M.L.B.); (M.P.-L.); (K.A.C.)
| | - Margaret C. Steiner
- Computational Biology Institute, Milken Institute School of Public Health, The George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052, USA; (M.C.S.); (U.R.); (M.L.B.); (M.P.-L.); (K.A.C.)
| | - Uzma Rentia
- Computational Biology Institute, Milken Institute School of Public Health, The George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052, USA; (M.C.S.); (U.R.); (M.L.B.); (M.P.-L.); (K.A.C.)
| | - Matthew L. Bendall
- Computational Biology Institute, Milken Institute School of Public Health, The George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052, USA; (M.C.S.); (U.R.); (M.L.B.); (M.P.-L.); (K.A.C.)
| | - Marcos Pérez-Losada
- Computational Biology Institute, Milken Institute School of Public Health, The George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052, USA; (M.C.S.); (U.R.); (M.L.B.); (M.P.-L.); (K.A.C.)
- Department of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, Milken Institute School of Public Health, The George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052, USA
- CIBIO-InBIO, Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, Universidade do Porto, Campus Agrário de Vairão, 4169-007 Vairão, Portugal
| | - Keith A. Crandall
- Computational Biology Institute, Milken Institute School of Public Health, The George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052, USA; (M.C.S.); (U.R.); (M.L.B.); (M.P.-L.); (K.A.C.)
- Department of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, Milken Institute School of Public Health, The George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052, USA
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Banin AN, Tuen M, Bimela JS, Tongo M, Zappile P, Khodadadi‐Jamayran A, Nanfack AJ, Okonko IO, Meli J, Wang X, Mbanya D, Ngogang J, Gorny MK, Heguy A, Fokunang C, Duerr R. Near full genome characterization of HIV-1 unique recombinant forms in Cameroon reveals dominant CRF02_AG and F2 recombination patterns. J Int AIDS Soc 2019; 22:e25362. [PMID: 31353798 PMCID: PMC6661401 DOI: 10.1002/jia2.25362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2018] [Accepted: 07/04/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION In Cameroon, a manifold diversity of HIV strains exists with CRF02_AG and unique recombinant forms (URFs) being the predominant strains. In recent years, a steady increase in URFs and clade F2 viruses has been monitored through partial genome sequencing. There is an information gap in the characterization of emerging URFs along the full genome, which is needed to address the challenges URFs pose towards diagnosis, treatment and HIV-1 vaccine design. METHOD Eighteen Cameroonian URFs from samples collected between the years 2000 and 2015 were studied using a newly developed near full genome sequencing (NFGS) protocol based on variable nested RT-PCRs with a versatile primer set. Near full genomes were characterized for recombination patterns and sequence signatures with possible impact on antiretroviral treatment or Env-directed immune responses. Third-generation sequencing (3GS) of near full or half genomes (HGs) gave insight into intra-patient URF diversity. RESULTS The characterized URFs were composed of a broad variety of subtypes and recombinants including A, F, G, CRF01_AE, CRF02_AG and CRF22_01A1. Phylogenetic analysis unveiled dominant CRF02_AG and F2 recombination patterns. 3GS indicated a high intra-patient URF diversity with up to four distinct viral sub-populations present in plasma at the same time. URF pol genomic analysis revealed a number of accessory drug resistance mutations (DRMs) in the ART-naïve participants. Genotypic env analysis suggests CCR5 usage in 14/18 samples and identified deviations at residues, critical for gp120/gp41 interphase and CD4 binding site broadly neutralizing antibodies in more than half of the studied URFs. V1V2 sites of immune pressure in the human RV144 vaccine study varied in more than a third of URFs. CONCLUSIONS This study identified novel mosaic patterns in URFs in Cameroon. In line with the regional predominance of CRF_02AG and the increased prevalence of clade F2, prominent CRF_02AG and F2 background patterns were observed underlying the URFs. In the context of the novel mosaic genomes, the impact of the identified accessory DRMs and Env epitope variations on treatment and immune control remains elusive. The evolving diversity of HIV-1 URFs in Cameroon requires continuous monitoring to respond to the increasing challenges for diagnosis, antiretroviral treatment and prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew N Banin
- Department of PathologyNew York University School of MedicineNew YorkNYUSA
- Faculty of Medicine and Biomedical SciencesUniversity of Yaoundé 1YaoundéCameroon
| | - Michael Tuen
- Department of PathologyNew York University School of MedicineNew YorkNYUSA
| | - Jude S Bimela
- Department of PathologyNew York University School of MedicineNew YorkNYUSA
- Faculty of ScienceDepartment of BiochemistryUniversity of Yaoundé 1YaoundéCameroon
| | - Marcel Tongo
- Center of Research for Emerging and Re‐Emerging Diseases (CREMER)Institute of Medical Research and Study of Medicinal PlantsYaoundéCameroon
| | - Paul Zappile
- Department of PathologyNew York University School of MedicineNew YorkNYUSA
| | - Alireza Khodadadi‐Jamayran
- Applied Bioinformatics Laboratories (ABL) and Genome Technology Center (GTC)Division of Advanced Research Technologies (DART)New York University Langone Medical CenterNew YorkNYUSA
| | - Aubin J Nanfack
- Department of PathologyNew York University School of MedicineNew YorkNYUSA
- Medical Diagnostic CenterYaoundéCameroon
- Chantal Biya International Reference Center for Research on HIV/AIDS Prevention and ManagementYaoundéCameroon
| | - Iheanyi O Okonko
- Virus Research UnitDepartment of MicrobiologyUniversity of Port HarcourtPort HarcourtNigeria
| | | | - Xiaohong Wang
- Manhattan Veterans Affairs Harbor Healthcare SystemsNew YorkNYUSA
| | - Dora Mbanya
- Faculty of Medicine and Biomedical SciencesUniversity of Yaoundé 1YaoundéCameroon
| | - Jeanne Ngogang
- Faculty of Medicine and Biomedical SciencesUniversity of Yaoundé 1YaoundéCameroon
| | - Miroslaw K Gorny
- Department of PathologyNew York University School of MedicineNew YorkNYUSA
| | - Adriana Heguy
- Department of PathologyNew York University School of MedicineNew YorkNYUSA
| | - Charles Fokunang
- Faculty of Medicine and Biomedical SciencesUniversity of Yaoundé 1YaoundéCameroon
| | - Ralf Duerr
- Department of PathologyNew York University School of MedicineNew YorkNYUSA
- Manhattan Veterans Affairs Harbor Healthcare SystemsNew YorkNYUSA
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