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Liu Q, He Q, Tao X, Yu P, Liu S, Xie Y, Zhu W. Resveratrol inhibits rabies virus infection in N2a cells by activating the SIRT1/Nrf2/HO-1 pathway. Heliyon 2024; 10:e36494. [PMID: 39281556 PMCID: PMC11399676 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e36494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2024] [Revised: 07/12/2024] [Accepted: 08/16/2024] [Indexed: 09/18/2024] Open
Abstract
Rabies is a highly lethal infectious disease with no existing treatment available, thus investigating effective antiviral compounds to control rabies virus (RABV) infection is of utmost importance. Resveratrol is a natural phenolic compound that, as a phytoalexin, exhibits several biological activities, including antiviral activity. In this study, we evaluated the inhibitory effect of resveratrol on RABV infection and investigated its molecular antiviral mechanism. We found that resveratrol significantly inhibited RABV infection, including the phases of adsorption, replication, and release, and also directly inactivated RABV and inhibited its infectivity. However, resveratrol had no significant effect on RABV internalization. Resveratrol also reduced RABV-induced oxidative stress, specifically reactive oxygen species and malondialdehyde levels. Western blotting analysis revealed that resveratrol enhanced antioxidant signaling via the SIRT1/Nrf2/HO-1 pathway and inhibited viral replication. Viral infection was enhanced after SIRT1 knockdown, which inhibited the SIRT1/Nrf2/HO-1 antioxidant signaling pathway, suggesting that this pathway plays an important role in RABV replication. Overall, resveratrol prevented the adsorption, replication, and release of RABV and directly inactivated RABV, but failed to inhibit RABV internalization. Furthermore, resveratrol activated the SIRT1/Nrf2/HO-1 pathway to inhibit RABV replication and suppressed RABV-induced oxidative stress. These findings highlight the therapeutic potential of resveratrol for fighting RABV infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qian Liu
- National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, 102206, China
| | - Qing He
- National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, 102206, China
| | - Xiaoyan Tao
- National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, 102206, China
| | - Pengcheng Yu
- National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, 102206, China
| | - Shuqing Liu
- National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, 102206, China
| | - Yuan Xie
- National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, 102206, China
| | - Wuyang Zhu
- National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, 102206, China
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Chi YL, Xie Y, Liu SQ, Zhu WY. Bardoxolone methyl inhibits the infection of rabies virus via Nrf2 pathway activation in vitro. Virol J 2023; 20:258. [PMID: 37950261 PMCID: PMC10638713 DOI: 10.1186/s12985-023-02213-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2023] [Accepted: 10/17/2023] [Indexed: 11/12/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Rabies is a widespread, fatal, infectious disease. Several antivirals against rabies virus (RABV) infection have been reported, but no approved, RABV-specific antiviral drugs that inhibit RABV infection in the clinic after symptom onset are available. Therefore, more effective drugs to reduce rabies fatalities are urgently needed. Bardoxolone methyl (CDDO-Me), an FDA-approved compound that has long been known as an antioxidant inflammatory modulator and one of the most potent nuclear factor erythroid-derived 2-like 2 (Nrf2) activators, protects myelin, axons, and CNS neurons by Nrf2 activation. Therefore, we investigated the potency of its anti-RABV activity in vitro. METHODS The mouse neuroblastoma cell line Neuro2a (N2a) and three RABV strains of different virulence were used; the cytotoxicity and anti-RABV activity of CDDO-Me in N2a cells were evaluated by CCK-8 assay and direct fluorescent antibody (DFA) assay. Pathway activation in N2a cells infected with the RABV strains SC16, CVS-11 or CTN upon CDDO-Me treatment was evaluated by western blotting (WB) and DFA assay. RESULTS CDDO-Me significantly inhibited infection of the three RABV strains of differing virulence (SC16, CVS-11 and CTN) in N2a cells. We also examined whether CDDO-Me activates the Nrf2-associated pathway upon infection with RABV strains of differing virulence. Nrf2, phosphorylated sequestosome (SQSTM1), SQSTM1, hemoglobin oxygenase (HO-1) and NAD(P)H dehydrogenase quinone 1 (NQO1) expression in N2a cells increased to varying degrees with CDDO-Me treatment, accompanied by Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 (Keap1) dissociation, upon infection with SC16, CVS-11 or CTN. The activation of SQSTM1 phosphorylation was significantly associated with the degradation of Keap-1 in CDDO-Me-treated N2a cells upon RABV infection. Furthermore, N2a cells pretreated with the Nrf2-specific inhibitor ATRA showed a significant decrease in HO-1 and NQO1 expression and a decrease in the anti-RABV efficacy of CDDO-Me. These inhibitory effects were observed upon infection with three RABV strains of differing virulence. CONCLUSION CDDO-Me inhibited RABV infection via Nrf2 activation, promoting a cytoprotective defense response in N2a cells. Our study provides a therapeutic strategy for RABV inhibition and neuroprotection during viral infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Lin Chi
- Key Laboratory of Medical Virology, Ministry of Health, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, NHC Key Laboratory of Biosafety, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, No.155 Changbai Road, Changping District, Beijing, 102206, People's Republic of China
| | - Yuan Xie
- Key Laboratory of Medical Virology, Ministry of Health, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, NHC Key Laboratory of Biosafety, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, No.155 Changbai Road, Changping District, Beijing, 102206, People's Republic of China
| | - Shu Qing Liu
- Key Laboratory of Medical Virology, Ministry of Health, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, NHC Key Laboratory of Biosafety, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, No.155 Changbai Road, Changping District, Beijing, 102206, People's Republic of China.
| | - Wu Yang Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Medical Virology, Ministry of Health, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, NHC Key Laboratory of Biosafety, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, No.155 Changbai Road, Changping District, Beijing, 102206, People's Republic of China.
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Xie Y, Chi YL, Liu SQ, Zhu WY. BCX4430 inhibits the replication of rabies virus by suppressing mTOR-dependent autophagy invitro. Virology 2023; 585:21-31. [PMID: 37267717 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2023.05.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2023] [Revised: 05/24/2023] [Accepted: 05/25/2023] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Rabies is a fatal neurological infectious disease caused by rabies virus (RABV). However, no effective anti-RABV drugs for treatment during the symptomatic phase are available. The novel adenosine nucleoside analog galidesivir (BCX4430) has broad-spectrum activity against a wide variety of highly pathogenic RNA viruses. In this study, we observed no apparent cytotoxicity of BCX4430 at the highest concentration of 250 μΜ, and which was displayed stronger antiviral activity against different virulent RABV in N2a or BHK-21 cells until 72 hpi. Meanwhile, BCX4430 showed greater anti-RABV activity than T-705 and anti-RABV activity similar to that of ribavirin in N2a cells. Furthermore, BCX4430 dose- and time-dependently inhibited RABV replication via mTOR-dependent autophagy inhibition in N2a cells with increased phospho-mTOR and phospho-SQSTM1 and decreased LC3-II levels. Taken together, these findings suggest that BCX4430 has potent anti-RABV activity in vitro and might provide a basis for the development of novel drug therapies against RABV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan Xie
- Key Laboratory of Medical Virology, Ministry of Health, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, NHC Key Laboratory of Biosafety, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, 102206, PR China
| | - Ying Lin Chi
- Key Laboratory of Medical Virology, Ministry of Health, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, NHC Key Laboratory of Biosafety, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, 102206, PR China; School of Public Health, Baotou Medical College, Baotou, 014040, Inner Mongolia, PR China
| | - Shu Qing Liu
- Key Laboratory of Medical Virology, Ministry of Health, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, NHC Key Laboratory of Biosafety, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, 102206, PR China.
| | - Wu Yang Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Medical Virology, Ministry of Health, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, NHC Key Laboratory of Biosafety, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, 102206, PR China.
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Liu Q, He Q, Zhu W. Deoxynivalenol Mycotoxin Inhibits Rabies Virus Replication In Vitro. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24097793. [PMID: 37175500 PMCID: PMC10178062 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24097793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2023] [Revised: 03/31/2023] [Accepted: 04/21/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Rabies is a highly fatal disease, and it is vital to find effective ways to manage and control infection. There is a need for new effective antiviral drugs that are particularly effective treatments for rabies. Deoxynivalenol (DON) is known mainly for its toxicity, but at the molecular level, it can inhibit RNA and DNA replication, and there is increasing evidence that different doses of DON have a positive effect on inhibiting virus replication. Based on this, we evaluated the effect of DON on inhibiting the rabies virus in vitro. The inhibitory effect of DON on rabies virus activity was dose- and time-dependent, and 0.25 μg/mL of DON could inhibit 99% of rabies virus activity within 24 h. Furthermore, DON could inhibit the adsorption, entry, replication, and release of rabies virus but could not inactivate the virus. The inhibitory effect of DON on rabies virus may be achieved by promoting apoptosis. Our study provides a new perspective for the study of anti-rabies virus and expands the direction of action of mycotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qian Liu
- NHC Key Laboratory of Biosafety, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing 102206, China
| | - Qing He
- NHC Key Laboratory of Biosafety, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing 102206, China
| | - Wuyang Zhu
- NHC Key Laboratory of Biosafety, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing 102206, China
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Ranpirnase (OKG-0301), a Novel Ribonuclease, Demonstrates Antiviral Activity against Adenovirus in the Ad5/NZW Rabbit Ocular Replication Model. Pathogens 2022; 11:pathogens11121485. [PMID: 36558819 PMCID: PMC9787402 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens11121485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2022] [Revised: 11/29/2022] [Accepted: 12/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Adenovirus ocular infections are common ocular viral infections seen worldwide, for which there is no approved antiviral therapy available. Ranpirnase is a novel ribonuclease which preferentially degrades tRNA resulting in an inhibition of protein synthesis. The study goal was to determine the anti-adenoviral activity of topical formulations of ranpirnase (OKG-0301) on adenoviral replication in the Ad5/NZW rabbit ocular replication model. NZW rabbits were inoculated in both eyes with human adenovirus type 5 (HAdV5) after corneal scarification. A day later, topical therapy was initiated in both eyes with 0.03% OKG-0301, 0.003% OKG-0301, saline or 0.5% cidofovir. Eyes were cultured to determine HAdV5 eye titers over 2 weeks. OKG-0301 (0.03% and 0.003%) and 0.5% cidofovir decreased viral titers compared to saline. Furthermore, both OKG-0301 formulations and 0.5% cidofovir shortened the duration of the HAdV5 infection compared to saline. Both 0.03% OKG-0301 and 0.003% OKG-0301 demonstrated increased antiviral activity compared to saline in the Ad5/NZW rabbit ocular replication model. The antiviral activity of the OKG-0301 groups was similar to that of the positive antiviral control, 0.5% cidofovir. Ranpirnase (OKG-0301) may be a potential candidate for a topical antiviral for adenoviral eye infections. Further clinical development is warranted.
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Role of the Ribonuclease ONCONASE in miRNA Biogenesis and tRNA Processing: Focus on Cancer and Viral Infections. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23126556. [PMID: 35742999 PMCID: PMC9223570 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23126556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2022] [Revised: 05/25/2022] [Accepted: 06/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The majority of transcribed RNAs do not codify for proteins, nevertheless they display crucial regulatory functions by affecting the cellular protein expression profile. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) and transfer RNA-derived small RNAs (tsRNAs) are effectors of interfering mechanisms, so that their biogenesis is a tightly regulated process. Onconase (ONC) is an amphibian ribonuclease known for cytotoxicity against tumors and antiviral activity. Additionally, ONC administration in patients resulted in clinical effectiveness and in a well-tolerated feature, at least for lung carcinoma and malignant mesothelioma. Moreover, the ONC therapeutic effects are actually potentiated by cotreatment with many conventional antitumor drugs. This review not only aims to describe the ONC activity occurring either in different tumors or in viral infections but also to analyze the molecular mechanisms underlying ONC pleiotropic and cellular-specific effects. In cancer, data suggest that ONC affects malignant phenotypes by generating tRNA fragments and miRNAs able to downregulate oncogenes expression and upregulate tumor-suppressor proteins. In cells infected by viruses, ONC hampers viral spread by digesting the primer tRNAs necessary for viral DNA replication. In this scenario, new therapeutic tools might be developed by exploiting the action of ONC-elicited RNA derivatives.
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Luo J, Zhang Y, Wang Y, Liu Q, Li J, He H, Luo Y, Huang S, Guo X. Artesunate and Dihydroartemisinin Inhibit Rabies Virus Replication. Virol Sin 2021; 36:721-729. [PMID: 33661488 PMCID: PMC7930525 DOI: 10.1007/s12250-021-00349-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2020] [Accepted: 11/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Rabies is caused by infection of rabies virus (RABV) and remains a serious threat to the global public health. Except for the requirement for cold chain and high cost of human rabies immune globulin, no small molecule drugs are currently available for clinical treatment of rabies. So, it is of great importance to identify novel compounds that can effectively inhibit RABV infection. Artesunate (ART) and dihydroartemisinin (DHA), two derivatives of artemisinin, are widely used for treatment of malaria in adults and children, showing high safety. In this study, we found that both ART and DHA were able to inhibit RABV replication in host cells at a low concentration (0.1 μmol/L). The antiviral effects of ART and DHA were independent of viral strains and cell lines. Pre-treatment with ART or DHA for 2 h in vitro did not affect the viral replication in host cells, implying that ART and DHA neither reduced the viability of RABV directly nor inhibited the binding and entrance of the virus to host cells. Further studies revealed that ART and DHA inhibited RABV genomic RNA synthesis and viral gene transcription. Treatment with ART or DHA (5 mg/kg) by intramuscular injection improved, to some extent, the survival rate of RABV-challenged mice. Combination treatment with derivatives of artemisinin and mannitol significantly improved the survival rate of RABV-challenged mice. The results suggest that ART and DHA have a great potential to be explored as new anti-rabies agents for treatment of rabies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Luo
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China
| | - Yue Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China
| | - Yang Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China
| | - Qing Liu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China
| | - Jiesen Li
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China
| | - Hongling He
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China
| | - Yongwen Luo
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China
| | - Shile Huang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, 1501 Kings Highway, Shreveport, LA, 71130-3932, USA. .,Feist-Weiller Cancer Center, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, Shreveport, LA, 71130-3932, USA.
| | - Xiaofeng Guo
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China.
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Castro J, Ribó M, Vilanova M, Benito A. Strengths and Challenges of Secretory Ribonucleases as AntiTumor Agents. Pharmaceutics 2021; 13:82. [PMID: 33435285 PMCID: PMC7828032 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics13010082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2020] [Revised: 01/04/2021] [Accepted: 01/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Approaches to develop effective drugs to kill cancer cells are mainly focused either on the improvement of the currently used chemotherapeutics or on the development of targeted therapies aimed at the selective destruction of cancer cells by steering specific molecules and/or enhancing the immune response. The former strategy is limited by its genotoxicity and severe side effects, while the second one is not always effective due to tumor cell heterogeneity and variability of targets in cancer cells. Between these two strategies, several approaches target different types of RNA in tumor cells. RNA degradation alters gene expression at different levels inducing cell death. However, unlike DNA targeting, it is a pleotropic but a non-genotoxic process. Among the ways to destroy RNA, we find the use of ribonucleases with antitumor properties. In the last few years, there has been a significant progress in the understanding of the mechanism by which these enzymes kill cancer cells and in the development of more effective variants. All the approaches seek to maintain the requirements of the ribonucleases to be specifically cytotoxic for tumor cells. These requirements start with the competence of the enzymes to interact with the cell membrane, a process that is critical for their internalization and selectivity for tumor cells and continue with the downstream effects mainly relying on changes in the RNA molecular profile, which are not only due to the ribonucleolytic activity of these enzymes. Although the great improvements achieved in the antitumor activity by designing new ribonuclease variants, some drawbacks still need to be addressed. In the present review, we will focus on the known mechanisms used by ribonucleases to kill cancer cells and on recent strategies to solve the shortcomings that they show as antitumor agents, mainly their pharmacokinetics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Castro
- Laboratori d’Enginyeria de Proteïnes, Departament de Biologia, Facultat de Ciències, Universitat de Girona, Campus de Montilivi, Carrer Maria Aurèlia Capmany, 40, 17003 Girona, Spain; (J.C.); (M.R.)
- Institut d’Investigació Biomèdica de Girona Josep Trueta, (IdIBGi), Hospital de Santa Caterina, Carrer del Dr. Castany, s/n, 17190 Salt, Spain
| | - Marc Ribó
- Laboratori d’Enginyeria de Proteïnes, Departament de Biologia, Facultat de Ciències, Universitat de Girona, Campus de Montilivi, Carrer Maria Aurèlia Capmany, 40, 17003 Girona, Spain; (J.C.); (M.R.)
- Institut d’Investigació Biomèdica de Girona Josep Trueta, (IdIBGi), Hospital de Santa Caterina, Carrer del Dr. Castany, s/n, 17190 Salt, Spain
| | - Maria Vilanova
- Laboratori d’Enginyeria de Proteïnes, Departament de Biologia, Facultat de Ciències, Universitat de Girona, Campus de Montilivi, Carrer Maria Aurèlia Capmany, 40, 17003 Girona, Spain; (J.C.); (M.R.)
- Institut d’Investigació Biomèdica de Girona Josep Trueta, (IdIBGi), Hospital de Santa Caterina, Carrer del Dr. Castany, s/n, 17190 Salt, Spain
| | - Antoni Benito
- Laboratori d’Enginyeria de Proteïnes, Departament de Biologia, Facultat de Ciències, Universitat de Girona, Campus de Montilivi, Carrer Maria Aurèlia Capmany, 40, 17003 Girona, Spain; (J.C.); (M.R.)
- Institut d’Investigació Biomèdica de Girona Josep Trueta, (IdIBGi), Hospital de Santa Caterina, Carrer del Dr. Castany, s/n, 17190 Salt, Spain
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Bourhy H, de Melo GD, Tarantola A. [New aspects of rabies control]. BULLETIN DE L'ACADEMIE NATIONALE DE MEDECINE 2020; 204:1000-1009. [PMID: 32981935 PMCID: PMC7500396 DOI: 10.1016/j.banm.2020.09.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2020] [Accepted: 09/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Rabies still causes about 60,000 human deaths per year, mainly in poor populations in Africa and Asia. However, since Louis Pasteur developed the first vaccine 130 years ago, prophylactic measures have been considerably improved and simplified. They now consist of the vaccine combined with purified rabies immunoglobulins of equine or human origin. In general, however, post-exposure prophylaxis protocols are long and expensive. Furthermore, the immunoglobulins used for associated serotherapy are costly and not widely available in developing countries. Approaches have been developed to deal with these two issues that offer hope for a paradigm shift for the benefit of exposed populations. Finally, mass rabies vaccination in dogs, which are the most cost-effective measure for preventing rabies in humans, are difficult to implement and sometimes have moderate effectiveness. The identification and analysis of the epidemiological drivers conditioning the circulation of the virus in dog populations allow a better understanding of the key control points that need to be associated with these campaigns for a better efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Bourhy
- Unité lyssavirus, épidémiologie et neuropathologie, centre collaborateur de l'Organisation mondiale de la santé de référence et de recherche sur la rage, institut Pasteur, 28, rue du Docteur Roux, 75724 Paris cedex 15, France
| | - G D de Melo
- Unité lyssavirus, épidémiologie et neuropathologie, centre collaborateur de l'Organisation mondiale de la santé de référence et de recherche sur la rage, institut Pasteur, 28, rue du Docteur Roux, 75724 Paris cedex 15, France
| | - A Tarantola
- Unité lyssavirus, épidémiologie et neuropathologie, centre collaborateur de l'Organisation mondiale de la santé de référence et de recherche sur la rage, institut Pasteur, 28, rue du Docteur Roux, 75724 Paris cedex 15, France
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