Adjuvantation of an Influenza Hemagglutinin Antigen with TLR4 and NOD2 Agonists Encapsulated in Poly(D,L-Lactide-Co-Glycolide) Nanoparticles Enhances Immunogenicity and Protection against Lethal Influenza Virus Infection in Mice

Cold and hot tumors: from molecular mechanisms to targeted therapy

Immunotherapy has made significant strides in cancer treatment, particularly through immune checkpoint blockade (ICB), which has shown notable clinical benefits across various tumor types. Despite the transformative impact of ICB treatment in cancer therapy, only a minority of patients exhibit a positive response to it. In patients with solid tumors, those who respond well to ICB treatment typically demonstrate an active immune profile referred to as the "hot" (immune-inflamed) phenotype. On the other hand, non-responsive patients may exhibit a distinct "cold" (immune-desert) phenotype, differing from the features of "hot" tumors. Additionally, there is a more nuanced "excluded" immune phenotype, positioned between the "cold" and "hot" categories, known as the immune "excluded" type. Effective differentiation between "cold" and "hot" tumors, and understanding tumor intrinsic factors, immune characteristics, TME, and external factors are critical for predicting tumor response and treatment results. It is widely accepted that ICB therapy exerts a more profound effect on "hot" tumors, with limited efficacy against "cold" or "altered" tumors, necessitating combinations with other therapeutic modalities to enhance immune cell infiltration into tumor tissue and convert "cold" or "altered" tumors into "hot" ones. Therefore, aligning with the traits of "cold" and "hot" tumors, this review systematically delineates the respective immune characteristics, influencing factors, and extensively discusses varied treatment approaches and drug targets based on "cold" and "hot" tumors to assess clinical efficacy.

The adjuvant effect of polymuramil, a NOD1 and NOD2 agonist, differs when immunizing mice of different inbred lines with nonstructural hepatitis C virus (Flaviviridae: Hepacivirus)proteins and is synergistically enhanced in combination with pyrogenalum, a TLR4 agonist

INTRODUCTION

Hepatitis C is a liver disease with high chronicity, the cause of cirrhosis and hepatocarcinoma. The main obstacle to controlling hepatitis C is the lack of vaccines. The aim of the work was to compare the immunogenic activity of nonstructural recombinant proteins NS3, NS4 and NS5B of hepatitis C virus (HCV) as components of a subunit candidate vaccine and to analyze the adjuvant properties of two available commercial drugs, polymuramil and pyrogenalum.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

BALB/c, DBA/2J and C57BL/6 mice were immunized with nonstructural proteins without adjuvants or with polymuramyl (NOD1 and NOD2 agonist) and pyrogenalum (TLR-4 agonist). The activity of antibodies was determined in ELISA, the cellular response - by antigen-specific lymphocyte proliferation and by production of IFN-γ in vitro.

RESULTS

Recombinant proteins showed different immunogenicity. NS4 induced antibodies more efficiently than NS3 and NS5B. Significant differences were found in the immune response of three inbred lines mice: the level of IFN-γ in BALB/c and DBA/2J mice induced by NS5B protein was 30 times higher than in C57Bl/6 mice. In contrast, the induction of antibodies in BALB/c mice was lower than in C57Bl/6 and DBA/2J. Polymuramil did not increase the humoral response to NS5B and enhanced the cellular response only in C57BL/6 mice. The combined use of polymuramil with pyrogenalum significantly increased both the humoral and cellular response of mice to all recombinant HCV proteins.

CONCLUSION

Different immunogenic properties and different functions of recombinant non-structural HCV proteins indicate the feasibility of their combined inclusion in subunit vaccines. It was established for the first time that immunization with HCV proteins with a complex adjuvant (polymuramyl + pyrogenalum) has a synergistic effect, significantly exceeding the effect of each of them separately.

Validation of Multi-epitope Peptides Encapsulated in PLGA Nanoparticles Against Influenza A Virus

BACKGROUND

Influenza is a highly contagious respiratory disease which poses a serious threat to public health globally, causing severe diseases in 3-5 million humans and resulting in 650,000 deaths annually. The current licensed seasonal influenza vaccines lacked cross-reactivity against novel emerging influenza strains as they conferred limited neutralising capabilities. To address the issue, we designed a multi-epitope peptide-based vaccine delivered by the self-adjuvanting PLGA nanoparticles against influenza infections.

METHODS

A total of six conserved peptides representing B- and T-cell epitopes of Influenza A were identified and they were formulated in either incomplete Freund's adjuvant containing CpG ODN 1826 or being encapsulated in PLGA nanoparticles for the evaluation of immunogenicity in BALB/c mice.

RESULTS

The self-adjuvanting PLGA nanoparticles encapsulating the six conserved peptides were capable of eliciting the highest levels of IgG and IFN- γ producing cells. In addition, the immunogenicity of the six peptides encapsulated in PLGA nanoparticles showed greater humoral and cellular mediated immune responses elicited by the mixture of six naked peptides formulated in incomplete Freund's adjuvant containing CpG ODN 1826 in the immunized mice. Peptide 3 from the mixture of six peptides was found to exert necrotic effect on CD3+ T-cells and this finding indicated that peptide 3 should be removed from the nanovaccine formulation.

CONCLUSION

The study demonstrated the self-adjuvanting properties of the PLGA nanoparticles as a delivery system without the need for incorporation of toxic and costly conventional adjuvants in multi-epitope peptide-based vaccines.

Immunogenicity and protective efficacy of an inactivated Newcastle disease virus vaccine encapsulated in poly-(lactic-co-glycolic acid) nanoparticles

An immunization experiment was conducted in specific pathogen-free chickens with the inactivated Newcastle disease virus (NDV) vaccine encapsulated in the poly-(lactic-co-glycolic) acid (PLGA) nanoparticles (NP) to evaluate its immunogenicity and protective efficacy. The NDV vaccine was prepared by inactivating one virulent Indian strain of NDV belonging to Genotype VII by using beta-propiolactone. PLGA nanoparticles encapsulating inactivated NDV were prepared by the solvent evaporation method. Scanning electron microscopy and zeta sizer analysis revealed that the (PLGA+NDV) NP were spherical, with an average size of 300 nm, having a zeta potential of -6 mV. The encapsulation efficiency and loading efficiency were 72% and 2.4%, respectively. On immunization trial in chicken, the (PLGA+NDV) NP induced significantly (P < 0.0001) higher levels of HI and IgY antibodies with the peak HI titer of 2⁸ and higher expression of IL-4 mRNA. The consistency of higher antibody levels suggests slow and pulsatile release of the antigens from the (PLGA+NDV) NP. The nano-NDV vaccine also induced cell mediated immunity with higher expression of IFN-γ indicating strong Th1 mediated immune responses in contrast to the commercial oil adjuvanted inactivated NDV vaccine. Further, the (PLGA+NDV) NP afforded 100% protection against the virulent NDV challenge. Our results suggested that PLGA NP have adjuvant potential on induction of humoral as well as Th1 biased cell mediated immune responses and also enhanced protective efficacy of the inactivated NDV vaccine. This study provides an insight for development of PLGA NP based inactivated NDV vaccine using the same genotype circulating in the field as well as for other avian diseases at exigencies.

Overview of Antimicrobial Biodegradable Polyester-Based Formulations

As the clinical complications induced by microbial infections are known to have life-threatening side effects, conventional anti-infective therapy is necessary, but not sufficient to overcome these issues. Some of their limitations are connected to drug-related inefficiency or resistance and pathogen-related adaptive modifications. Therefore, there is an urgent need for advanced antimicrobials and antimicrobial devices. A challenging, yet successful route has been the development of new biostatic or biocide agents and biomaterials by considering the indisputable advantages of biopolymers. Polymers are attractive materials due to their physical and chemical properties, such as compositional and structural versatility, tunable reactivity, solubility and degradability, and mechanical and chemical tunability, together with their intrinsic biocompatibility and bioactivity, thus enabling the fabrication of effective pharmacologically active antimicrobial formulations. Besides representing protective or potentiating carriers for conventional drugs, biopolymers possess an impressive ability for conjugation or functionalization. These aspects are key for avoiding malicious side effects or providing targeted and triggered drug delivery (specific and selective cellular targeting), and generally to define their pharmacological efficacy. Moreover, biopolymers can be processed in different forms (particles, fibers, films, membranes, or scaffolds), which prove excellent candidates for modern anti-infective applications. This review contains an overview of antimicrobial polyester-based formulations, centered around the effect of the dimensionality over the properties of the material and the effect of the production route or post-processing actions.

Enhanced Influenza Immunity by Nasal Mucosal Administration of the TPGS-Modified Liposomal Vaccine

Influenza infection is difficult to prevent, control, and treat because of rapid viral mutation, fast disease progression, and high mortality. Vaccination is the main means by which to prevent and control influenza, but effectiveness is limited in that poor cellular uptake and weak immunogenicity of vaccines provides less than optimal host protection. Liposomal influenza vaccines are a promising strategy to overcome these limitations and the use of liposomal immune modulators and intranasal administration of liposomal influenza vaccines may be a means by which to improve influenza protection. The cationic lipids, i.e., dimethyldioctadecylammonium (DDA), 1,2-dioctadecanoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DSPC), and D-α-tocopherol polyethylene glycol 1000 (TPGS) can form blank liposomes, which can incorporate influenza antigens to produce an influenza vaccine (DDA-DSPC-TPGS). Herein, this vaccine was shown to induce dendritic cell maturation, increase host cellular uptake of the vaccine, and enhance immune responses both in vitro and in vivo. The addition of TPGS, as an amphiphilic immune adjuvant, significantly reduced the toxicity of the DDA liposomal influenza vaccine. Further, the polyethylene glycol component and tocopherol structure of TPGS enhanced the cellular uptake of the vaccine by means of stealth properties and the capacity to inhibit cellular efflux. After nasal mucosal immunization, enhanced cellular uptake rates and abundant immune cells in the nasopharyngeal-associated lymphoid tissue promoted the production of immunoglobulin A, immunoglobulin G1, and interferon-γ, which in turn mediated a more robust immune response against influenza virus. In summary, the DDA-DSPC-TPGS influenza vaccine is a safe and effective means by which to activate the immune system. The results herein provide an effective strategy by which to overcome current difficulties associated with the prevention and treatment of influenza.

Nanocarriers for effective delivery: modulation of innate immunity for the management of infections and the associated complications

Innate immunity is the first line of defense against invading pathogens. Innate immune cells can recognize invading pathogens through recognizing pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) via pattern recognition receptors (PRRs). The recognition of PAMPs by PRRs triggers immune defense mechanisms and the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6. However, sustained and overwhelming activation of immune system may disrupt immune homeostasis and contribute to inflammatory disorders. Immunomodulators targeting PRRs may be beneficial to treat infectious diseases and their associated complications. However, therapeutic performances of immunomodulators can be negatively affected by (1) high immune-mediated toxicity, (2) poor solubility and (3) bioactivity loss after long circulation. Recently, nanocarriers have emerged as a very promising tool to overcome these obstacles owning to their unique properties such as sustained circulation, desired bio-distribution, and preferred pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic profiles. In this review, we aim to provide an up-to-date overview on the strategies and applications of nanocarrier-assisted innate immune modulation for the management of infections and their associated complications. We first summarize examples of important innate immune modulators. The types of nanomaterials available for drug delivery, as well as their applications for the delivery of immunomodulatory drugs and vaccine adjuvants are also discussed.

Regulation of Immune Homeostasis via Muramyl Peptides-Low Molecular Weight Bioregulators of Bacterial Origin

Metabolites and fragments of bacterial cells play an important role in the formation of immune homeostasis. Formed in the course of evolution, symbiotic relationships between microorganisms and a macroorganism are manifested, in particular, in the regulation of numerous physiological functions of the human body by the innate immunity receptors. Low molecular weight bioregulators of bacterial origin have recently attracted more and more attention as drugs in the prevention and composition of complex therapy for a wide range of diseases of bacterial and viral etiology. Signaling networks show cascades of causal relationships of deterministic phenomena that support the homeostasis of multicellular organisms at different levels. To create networks, data from numerous biomedical and clinical research databases were used to prepare expert systems for use in pharmacological and biomedical research with an emphasis on muramyl dipeptides. Muramyl peptides are the fragments of the cell wall of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Binding of muramyl peptides with intracellular NOD2 receptors is crucial for an immune response on pathogens. Depending on the microenvironment and duration of action, muramyl peptides possess positive or negative regulation of inflammation. Other factors, such as genetic, pollutions, method of application and stress also contribute and should be taken into account. A system biology approach should be used in order to systemize all experimental data for rigorous analysis, with the aim of understanding intrinsic pathways of homeostasis, in order to define precise medicine therapy and drug design.

Nanovaccine: an emerging strategy

INTRODUCTION

Vaccination is so far the most effective way of eradicating infections. Rapidly emerging drug resistance against infectious diseases and chemotherapy-related toxicities in cancer warrant immediate vaccine development to save mankind. Subunit vaccines alone, however, fail to elicit sufficiently strong and long-lasting protective immunity against deadly pathogens. Nanoparticle (NP)-based delivery vehicles like microemulsions, liposomes, virosomes, nanogels, micelles and dendrimers offer promising strategies to overcome limitations of traditional vaccine adjuvants. Nanovaccines can improve targeted delivery, antigen presentation, stimulation of body's innate immunity, strong T cell response combined with safety to combat infectious diseases and cancers. Further, nanovaccines can be highly beneficial to generate effective immutherapeutic formulations against cancer.

AREAS COVERED

This review summarizes the emerging nanoparticle strategies highlighting their success and challenges in preclinical and clinical trials in infectious diseases and cancer. It provides a concise overview of current nanoparticle-based vaccines, their adjuvant potential and their cellular delivery mechanisms.

EXPERT OPINION

The nanovaccines (50-250 nm in size) are most efficient in terms of tissue targeting, prolonged circulation and preferential uptake by the professional APCs chiefly due to their small size. More rational designing, improved antigen loading, extensive functionalization and targeted delivery are some of the future goals of ideal nanovaccines.

Nano-Microparticle Platforms in Developing Next-Generation Vaccines

The first vaccines ever made were based on live-attenuated or inactivated pathogens, either whole cells or fragments. Although these vaccines required the co-administration of antigens with adjuvants to induce a strong humoral response, they could only elicit a poor CD8⁺ T-cell response. In contrast, next-generation nano/microparticle-based vaccines offer several advantages over traditional ones because they can induce a more potent CD8⁺ T-cell response and, at the same time, are ideal carriers for proteins, adjuvants, and nucleic acids. The fact that these nanocarriers can be loaded with molecules able to modulate the immune response by inducing different effector functions and regulatory activities makes them ideal tools for inverse vaccination, whose goal is to shut down the immune response in autoimmune diseases. Poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) and liposomes are biocompatible materials approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for clinical use and are, therefore, suitable for nanoparticle-based vaccines. Recently, another candidate platform for innovative vaccines based on extracellular vesicles (EVs) has been shown to efficiently co-deliver antigens and adjuvants. This review will discuss the potential use of PLGA-NPs, liposomes, and EVs as carriers of peptides, adjuvants, mRNA, and DNA for the development of next-generation vaccines against endemic and emerging viruses in light of the recent COVID-19 pandemic.