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Chapman KM, Richardson FJ, Forster CY, Middleton EJT, White TE, Burke PF, Latty T. Artificial flowers as a tool for investigating multimodal flower choice in wild insects. Ecol Evol 2023; 13:e10687. [PMID: 38020672 PMCID: PMC10659823 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.10687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2023] [Revised: 10/10/2023] [Accepted: 10/20/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Flowers come in a variety of colours, shapes, sizes and odours. Flowers also differ in the quality and quantity of nutritional reward they provide to entice potential pollinators to visit. Given this diversity, generalist flower-visiting insects face the considerable challenge of deciding which flowers to feed on and which to ignore. Working with real flowers poses logistical challenges due to correlations between flower traits, maintenance costs and uncontrolled variables. Here, we overcome this challenge by designing multimodal artificial flowers that varied in visual, olfactory and reward attributes. We used artificial flowers to investigate the impact of seven floral attributes (three visual cues, two olfactory cues and two rewarding attributes) on flower visitation and species richness. We investigated how flower attributes influenced two phases of the decision-making process: the decision to land on a flower, and the decision to feed on a flower. Artificial flowers attracted 890 individual insects representing 15 morphospecies spanning seven arthropod orders. Honeybees were the most common visitors accounting for 46% of visitors. Higher visitation rates were driven by the presence of nectar, the presence of linalool, flower shape and flower colour and was negatively impacted by the presence of citral. Species richness was driven by the presence of nectar, the presence of linalool and flower colour. For hymenopterans, the probability of landing on the artificial flowers was influenced by the presence of nectar or pollen, shape and the presence of citral and/or linalool. The probability of feeding increased when flowers contained nectar. For dipterans, the probability of landing on artificial flowers increased when the flower was yellow and contained linalool. The probability of feeding increased when flowers contained pollen, nectar and linalool. Our results demonstrate the multi-attribute nature of flower preferences and highlight the usefulness of artificial flowers as tools for studying flower visitation in wild insects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn M. Chapman
- School of Life and Environmental SciencesThe University of SydneySydneyNew South WalesAustralia
| | - Freya J. Richardson
- School of Life and Environmental SciencesThe University of SydneySydneyNew South WalesAustralia
- Sydney Institute of AgricultureThe University of SydneySydneyNew South WalesAustralia
| | - Caitlyn Y. Forster
- School of Life and Environmental SciencesThe University of SydneySydneyNew South WalesAustralia
| | - Eliza J. T. Middleton
- School of Life and Environmental SciencesThe University of SydneySydneyNew South WalesAustralia
| | - Thomas E. White
- School of Life and Environmental SciencesThe University of SydneySydneyNew South WalesAustralia
| | - Paul F. Burke
- UTS Business School and Centre for Business Intelligence and Data AnalyticsUniversity of Technology SydneySydneyNew South WalesAustralia
| | - Tanya Latty
- School of Life and Environmental SciencesThe University of SydneySydneyNew South WalesAustralia
- Sydney Institute of AgricultureThe University of SydneySydneyNew South WalesAustralia
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Čukanová E, Prodělalová J, Palíková M, Kováčová K, Linhart P, Papežíková I. Can the examination of different types of hive samples be a non-invasive method for detection and quantification of viruses in honey bee ( Apis mellifera L.) colonies? J Vet Res 2023; 67:323-331. [PMID: 37786848 PMCID: PMC10541673 DOI: 10.2478/jvetres-2023-0046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2023] [Accepted: 07/21/2023] [Indexed: 10/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Honey bee viruses have been shown to negatively affect the vigour and longevity of European honey bees (Apis mellifera L). In the present work, beehive materials were tested for their potential to serve as non-invasive samples for honey bee virus detection. Material and Methods Honey, pollen, hive debris, hive grid smears and forager honey bees were collected from 24 hives at four locations in the Czech Republic. Deformed wing virus (DWV), acute bee paralysis virus (ABPV), sacbrood virus (SBV) and black queen cell virus (BQCV) were detected using a reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR) and real-time quantitative RT-PCR and the results for bees and alternative materials compared. Results All forager bee samples contained DWV, BQCV and SBV and 54.2% had ABPV. When comparing beehive materials to bees, the most promising results were obtained from honey and pollen samples, with BQCV and SBV detected in all honey samples and ABPV in 12.5%. Detection of SBV was achieved in 91.6% of pollen samples, detection of BQCV in 87.5% and detection of DWW in 75%. The results for debris and smears were less consistent with the viral profile of the forager samples. Conclusion The best candidate materials for honey bee virus detection in a non-invasive technique are honey and pollen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eliška Čukanová
- Faculty of Veterinary Hygiene and Ecology, University of Veterinary Sciences Brno, 612 42Brno, Czech Republic
- Veterinary Research Institute, 621 00Brno, Czech Republic
| | | | - Miroslava Palíková
- Faculty of Veterinary Hygiene and Ecology, University of Veterinary Sciences Brno, 612 42Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Kristýna Kováčová
- Faculty of Veterinary Hygiene and Ecology, University of Veterinary Sciences Brno, 612 42Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Petr Linhart
- Faculty of Veterinary Hygiene and Ecology, University of Veterinary Sciences Brno, 612 42Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Ivana Papežíková
- Faculty of Veterinary Hygiene and Ecology, University of Veterinary Sciences Brno, 612 42Brno, Czech Republic
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Cook SC, Ryabov EV, Becker C, Rogers CW, Posada-Florez F, Evans JD, Chen YP. Deformed wing virus of honey bees is inactivated by cold plasma ionized hydrogen peroxide. FRONTIERS IN INSECT SCIENCE 2023; 3:1216291. [PMID: 38469475 PMCID: PMC10926414 DOI: 10.3389/finsc.2023.1216291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2023] [Accepted: 07/18/2023] [Indexed: 03/13/2024]
Abstract
Deformed wing virus (DWV) is a widespread pathogen of Apis mellifera honey bees, and is considered a major causative factor for the collapse of infected honey bee colonies. DWV can be horizontally transmitted among bees through various oral routes, including via food sharing and by interactions of bees with viral-contaminated solid hive substrates. Cold plasma ionized hydrogen peroxide (iHP) is used extensively by the food production, processing and medical industries to clean surfaces of microbial contaminants. In this study, we investigated the use of iHP to inactivate DWV particles in situ on a solid substrate. iHP-treated DWV sources were ~105-fold less infectious when injected into naïve honey bee pupae compared to DWV receiving no iHP treatment, matching injected controls containing no DWV. iHP treatment also greatly reduced the incidence of overt DWV infections (i.e., pupae having >109 copies of DWV). The level of DWV inactivation achieved with iHP treatment was higher than other means of viral inactivation such as gamma irradiation, and iHP treatment is likely simpler and safer. Treatment of DWV contaminated hive substrates with iHP, even with honey bees present, may be an effective way to decrease the impacts of DWV infection on honey bees.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven C. Cook
- United States Department of Agriculture - Agricultural Research (USDA-ARS) Service, Bee Research Laboratory, Beltsville, MD, United States
| | - Eugene V. Ryabov
- United States Department of Agriculture - Agricultural Research (USDA-ARS) Service, Bee Research Laboratory, Beltsville, MD, United States
- Department of Entomology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, United States
| | | | - Curtis W. Rogers
- United States Department of Agriculture - Agricultural Research (USDA-ARS) Service, Bee Research Laboratory, Beltsville, MD, United States
| | - Francisco Posada-Florez
- United States Department of Agriculture - Agricultural Research (USDA-ARS) Service, Bee Research Laboratory, Beltsville, MD, United States
| | - Jay D. Evans
- United States Department of Agriculture - Agricultural Research (USDA-ARS) Service, Bee Research Laboratory, Beltsville, MD, United States
| | - Yan Ping Chen
- United States Department of Agriculture - Agricultural Research (USDA-ARS) Service, Bee Research Laboratory, Beltsville, MD, United States
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Zanni V, Frizzera D, Marroni F, Seffin E, Annoscia D, Nazzi F. Age-related response to mite parasitization and viral infection in the honey bee suggests a trade-off between growth and immunity. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0288821. [PMID: 37459342 PMCID: PMC10351714 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0288821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2023] [Accepted: 07/04/2023] [Indexed: 07/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Host age at parasites' exposure is often neglected in studies on host-parasite interactions despite the important implications for epidemiology. Here we compared the impact of the parasitic mite Varroa destructor, and the associated pathogenic virus DWV on different life stages of their host, the western honey bee Apis mellifera. The pre-imaginal stages of the honey bee proved to be more susceptible to mite parasitization and viral infection than adults. The higher viral load in mite-infested bees and DWV genotype do not appear to be the drivers of the observed difference which, instead, seems to be related to the immune-competence of the host. These results support the existence of a trade-off between immunity and growth, making the pupa, which is involved in the highly energy-demanding process of metamorphosis, more susceptible to parasites and pathogens. This may have important implications for the evolution of the parasite's virulence and in turn for honey bee health. Our results highlight the important role of host's age and life stage at exposure in epidemiological modelling. Furthermore, our study could unravel new aspects of the complex honey bee-Varroa relationship to be addressed for a sustainable management of this parasite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Virginia Zanni
- Dipartimento di Scienze AgroAlimentari, Ambientali e Animali (DI4A), Università degli Studi di Udine, Udine, Italy
| | - Davide Frizzera
- Dipartimento di Scienze AgroAlimentari, Ambientali e Animali (DI4A), Università degli Studi di Udine, Udine, Italy
| | - Fabio Marroni
- Dipartimento di Scienze AgroAlimentari, Ambientali e Animali (DI4A), Università degli Studi di Udine, Udine, Italy
| | - Elisa Seffin
- Dipartimento di Scienze AgroAlimentari, Ambientali e Animali (DI4A), Università degli Studi di Udine, Udine, Italy
| | - Desiderato Annoscia
- Dipartimento di Scienze AgroAlimentari, Ambientali e Animali (DI4A), Università degli Studi di Udine, Udine, Italy
| | - Francesco Nazzi
- Dipartimento di Scienze AgroAlimentari, Ambientali e Animali (DI4A), Università degli Studi di Udine, Udine, Italy
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Power K, Martano M, Ragusa E, Altamura G, Maiolino P. Detection of honey bee viruses in larvae of Vespa orientalis. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2023; 13:1207319. [PMID: 37424785 PMCID: PMC10326897 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2023.1207319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2023] [Accepted: 06/12/2023] [Indexed: 07/11/2023] Open
Abstract
The Oriental hornet (Vespa orientalis) is one of the major predators of honey bees. It has been demonstrated that adults of V. orientalis can harbor honey bee viruses, however the transmission route of infection is still not clear. The aim of this study was to study the possible presence of honey bee viruses in V. orientalis larvae and honey bees collected from the same apiary. Therefore, 29 samples of V. orientalis larvae and 2 pools of honey bee (Apis mellifera). samples were analyzed by multiplex PCR to detect the presence of six honeybee viruses: Acute Bee Paralysis Virus (ABPV), Black Queen Cell Virus (BQCV), Chronic Bee Paralysis Virus (CBPV), Deformed Wing Virus (DWV), Kashmir Bee Virus (KBV) and Sac Brood Virus (SBV). Biomolecular analysis of V. orientalis larvae revealed that DWV was present in 24/29 samples, SBV in 10/29, BQCV in 7/29 samples and ABPV in 5/29 samples, while no sample was found positive for CBPV or KBV. From biomolecular analysis of honey bee samples DWV was the most detected virus, followed by SBV, BQCV, ABPV. No honey bee sample was found positive for CBPV or KBV. Considering the overlapping of positivities between V.orientalis larvae and honey bee samples, and that V.orientalis larvae are fed insect proteins, preferably honey bees, we can suggest the acquisition of viral particles through the ingestion of infected bees. However, future studies are needed to confirm this hypothesis and rule out any other source of infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen Power
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Productions, University of Naples “Federico II”, Naples, Italy
| | - Manuela Martano
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Productions, University of Naples “Federico II”, Naples, Italy
| | - Ernesto Ragusa
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Forest Sciences, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - Gennaro Altamura
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Productions, University of Naples “Federico II”, Naples, Italy
| | - Paola Maiolino
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Productions, University of Naples “Federico II”, Naples, Italy
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Arzumanyan H, Avagyan H, Voskanyan H, Simonyan L, Simonyan J, Semirjyan Z, Karalyan Z. First molecular detection of the presence of honey bee viruses in insects, Varroa destructor mites, and pollinated plants in an isolated region of Armenia. Vet World 2023; 16:1029-1034. [PMID: 37576754 PMCID: PMC10420706 DOI: 10.14202/vetworld.2023.1029-1034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2023] [Accepted: 04/12/2023] [Indexed: 08/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Background and Aim Recently, viral diseases of honey bees (Apis mellifera) have presented an increasing threat to beekeeping. This study aimed to examine the presence of honey bee viruses in Apis and non-Apis bee species, the mite Varroa destructor, and pollinated plants in Armenia. Materials and Methods Sampling was performed in Tavush Province, in the northeast of the Republic of Armenia, from August to November 2019. Overall, 200 A. mellifera bees, 50 V. destructor mites, and 20 wasps were collected (corresponding to three bees, five mites, and 2-11 wasps in each investigated sample) and homogenized for RNA isolation and detection of viruses. Ten pollinated plants were taken from each plant, and 2 g of each sample was used for homogenization. In each investigated case Apis mellifera, Varroa destructor, Vespula germanica and plants received percentages of the virus presence. Results Six important honey bee viruses (acute bee paralysis virus [ABPV], deformed wing virus [DWV], A. mellifera norovirus [ANV], Lake Sinai virus-2 [LSV-2], Big Sioux River virus [BSRV], and A. mellifera filamentous virus [AmFV]) were detected in samples by polymerase chain reaction. Our results showed that DWV, ANV, and ABPV were the most common viruses in honey bees. All viruses were detected in wasps, but LSV-2 and ANV were present in almost all samples. Conclusion Our results showed that almost all viruses were present in V. destructor. Although ANV is very common in honey bees, it did not appear in any mite samples. Our study indicates that viruses typically associated with honey bees were also actively infecting wasps. Our data suggest that the survival of viruses in plants can be an important source of seasonal transmission of viruses to bees. In addition, pollinated plants can potentially serve as reservoirs for honey bee viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hranush Arzumanyan
- Laboratory of Cell Biology and Virology, Institute of Molecular Biology of NAS RA, Yerevan, Armenia
| | - Hranush Avagyan
- Laboratory of Cell Biology and Virology, Institute of Molecular Biology of NAS RA, Yerevan, Armenia
- Experimental Laboratory, Yerevan State Medical University, Yerevan, Armenia
| | - Henry Voskanyan
- Laboratory of Cell Biology and Virology, Institute of Molecular Biology of NAS RA, Yerevan, Armenia
- Scientific Center for Risks Assessment and Analysis in Food Safety Area, CJCS, Yerevan, Armenia
| | - Liana Simonyan
- Scientific Center for Risks Assessment and Analysis in Food Safety Area, CJCS, Yerevan, Armenia
| | - Jon Simonyan
- Scientific Center for Risks Assessment and Analysis in Food Safety Area, CJCS, Yerevan, Armenia
| | - Zara Semirjyan
- Laboratory of Cell Biology and Virology, Institute of Molecular Biology of NAS RA, Yerevan, Armenia
- Experimental Laboratory, Yerevan State Medical University, Yerevan, Armenia
| | - Zaven Karalyan
- Laboratory of Cell Biology and Virology, Institute of Molecular Biology of NAS RA, Yerevan, Armenia
- Department of Medical Biology, Yerevan State Medical University, Yerevan, Armenia
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Ghramh HA, Khan KA. Honey Bees Prefer Pollen Substitutes Rich in Protein Content Located at Short Distance from the Apiary. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:ani13050885. [PMID: 36899742 PMCID: PMC10000118 DOI: 10.3390/ani13050885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2022] [Revised: 02/02/2023] [Accepted: 02/27/2023] [Indexed: 03/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The availability of floral resources is crucial for honey bee colonies because it allows them to obtain protein from pollen and carbohydrates from nectar; typically, they consume these nutrients in the form of bee bread, which has undergone fermentation. However, the intensification of agriculture, urbanization, changes to the topography, and harsh environmental conditions are currently impacting foraging sites due to habitat loss and scarcity of food resources. Thus, this study aimed to assess honey bee preference for various pollen substitute diet compositions. Bee colonies perform poorly because of specific environmental problems, which ultimately result in pollen scarcity. Pollen substitutes located at various distance from the bee hive were also investigated in addition to determining the preferences of honey bees for various pollen substitute diets. The local honey bee (Apis mellifera jemenitica) colonies and different diets (four main treatments, namely, chickpea flour, maize flour, sorghum flour, wheat flour; each flour was further mixed with cinnamon powder, turmeric powder, flour only, flour mixed with both cinnamon and turmeric powder) were used. Bee pollen was used as a control. The best performing pollen substitutes were further placed at 10, 25, and 50 m distances from the apiary. Maximum bee visits were observed on bee pollen (210 ± 25.96) followed by chickpea flour only (205 ± 19.32). However, there was variability in the bee visits to the different diets (F (16,34) = 17.91; p < 0.01). In addition, a significant difference in diet consumption was observed in control (576 ± 58.85 g) followed by chickpea flour only (463.33 ± 42.84 g), compared to rest of the diets (F (16,34) = 29.75; p < 0.01). Similarly, foraging efforts differed significantly (p < 0.01) at the observed time of 7-8 A.M., 11-12 A.M., and 4-5 P.M. at the distance of 10, 25, and 50 m away from the apiary. Honey bees preferred to visit the food source that was closest to the hive. This study should be very helpful for beekeepers in supplementing their bee colonies when there is a shortage or unavailability of pollens, and it is much better to keep the food source near the apiary. Future research needs to highlight the effect of these diets on bee health and colony development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hamed A. Ghramh
- Research Center for Advanced Materials Science (RCAMS), King Khalid University, P.O. Box 9004, Abha 61413, Saudi Arabia
- Unit of Bee Research and Honey Production, King Khalid University, P.O. Box 9004, Abha 61413, Saudi Arabia
- Biology Department Faculty of Science, King Khalid University, P.O. Box 9004, Abha 61413, Saudi Arabia
| | - Khalid Ali Khan
- Research Center for Advanced Materials Science (RCAMS), King Khalid University, P.O. Box 9004, Abha 61413, Saudi Arabia
- Unit of Bee Research and Honey Production, King Khalid University, P.O. Box 9004, Abha 61413, Saudi Arabia
- Applied College, King Khalid University, P.O. Box 9004, Abha 61413, Saudi Arabia
- Correspondence:
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Balkanska R, Shumkova R, Atsenova N, Salkova D, Dundarova H, Radoslavov G, Hristov P. Molecular Detection and Phylogenetic Analysis of Deformed Wing Virus and Sacbrood Virus Isolated from Pollen. Vet Sci 2023; 10:vetsci10020140. [PMID: 36851444 PMCID: PMC9965827 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci10020140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2023] [Revised: 02/03/2023] [Accepted: 02/08/2023] [Indexed: 02/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Among many pathogens and pests, honey bee viruses are known as one of the most common cause of diseases in honey bee colonies. In this study, we demonstrate that pollen grains and bee bread are potential sources of viral DNA. We extracted DNA from 3 types of pollen samples: directly provided by beekeepers (n = 12), purchased from trade markets (n = 5), and obtained from honeycombs (bee bread, n = 10). The extracted DNA was used for molecular detection (RT-PCR analysis) of six of the most widely distributed honey bee viruses: deformed wing virus, sacbrood virus, acute bee paralysis virus, black queen cell virus, Kashmir bee virus, Israeli acute paralysis virus, and chronic bee paralysis virus. We successfully managed to establish only the deformed wing virus (DWV) and the sacbrood virus (SBV), with different distribution frequencies depending on the territory of the country. The phylogenetic analyses of Bulgarian isolates were performed with the most similar sequences available in molecular databases from other countries. Phylogenies of Bulgarian viral strains demonstrated genetically heterogeneous populations of DWV and relatively homogenous populations of SBV. In conclusion, the results obtained from the current study have shown that pollen is a valuable source for molecular detection of honey bee pathogens. This allows epidemiological monitoring of honey bee diseases at a regional and a national level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ralitsa Balkanska
- Department “Special Branches”, Institute of Animal Science, Agricultural Academy, 2230 Kostinbrod, Bulgaria
| | - Rositsa Shumkova
- Research Centre of Stockbreeding and Agriculture, Agricultural Academy, 4700 Smolyan, Bulgaria
| | - Nedyalka Atsenova
- Department of Animal Diversity and Resources, Institute of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Research, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Delka Salkova
- Department of Experimental Parasitology, Institute of Experimental Morphology, Pathology and Anthropology with Museum, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Heliana Dundarova
- Department of Animal Diversity and Resources, Institute of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Research, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria
- Department of Ecosystem Research, Environmental Risk Assessment and Conservation Biology, Institute of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Research, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Georgi Radoslavov
- Department of Animal Diversity and Resources, Institute of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Research, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Peter Hristov
- Department of Animal Diversity and Resources, Institute of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Research, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria
- Correspondence:
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Cilia G, Forzan M. Editorial: Insights into bee diseases and bee health. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:993440. [PMID: 35992175 PMCID: PMC9391059 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.993440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2022] [Accepted: 07/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Giovanni Cilia
- CREA Research Centre for Agriculture and Environment, Bologna, Italy
- *Correspondence: Giovanni Cilia,
| | - Mario Forzan
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
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Cilia G, Flaminio S, Zavatta L, Ranalli R, Quaranta M, Bortolotti L, Nanetti A. Occurrence of Honey Bee (Apis mellifera L.) Pathogens in Wild Pollinators in Northern Italy. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:907489. [PMID: 35846743 PMCID: PMC9280159 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.907489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2022] [Accepted: 05/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Diseases contribute to the decline of pollinator populations, which may be aggravated by the interspecific transmission of honey bee pests and pathogens. Flowers increase the risk of transmission, as they expose the pollinators to infections during the foraging activity. In this study, both the prevalence and abundance of 21 honey bee pathogens (11 viruses, 4 bacteria, 3 fungi, and 3 trypanosomatids) were assessed in the flower-visiting entomofauna sampled from March to September 2021 in seven sites in the two North-Italian regions, Emilia-Romagna and Piedmont. A total of 1,028 specimens were collected, identified, and analysed. Of the twenty-one pathogens that were searched for, only thirteen were detected. Altogether, the prevalence of the positive individuals reached 63.9%, with Nosema ceranae, deformed wing virus (DWV), and chronic bee paralysis virus (CBPV) as the most prevalent pathogens. In general, the pathogen abundance averaged 5.15 * 106 copies, with CBPV, N. ceranae, and black queen cell virus (BQCV) as the most abundant pathogens, with 8.63, 1.58, and 0.48 * 107 copies, respectively. All the detected viruses were found to be replicative. The sequence analysis indicated that the same genetic variant was circulating in a specific site or region, suggesting that interspecific transmission events among honey bees and wild pollinators are possible. Frequently, N. ceranae and DWV were found to co-infect the same individual. The circulation of honey bee pathogens in wild pollinators was never investigated before in Italy. Our study resulted in the unprecedented detection of 72 wild pollinator species as potential hosts of honey bee pathogens. Those results encourage the implementation of monitoring actions aiming to improve our understanding of the environmental implications of such interspecific transmission events, which is pivotal to embracing a One Health approach to pollinators’ welfare.
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Power K, Altamura G, Martano M, Maiolino P. Detection of Honeybee Viruses in Vespa orientalis. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:896932. [PMID: 35601108 PMCID: PMC9114811 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.896932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2022] [Accepted: 04/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The Oriental hornet (Vespa orientalis) is spreading across the Italian territory threatening the health and wellbeing of honeybees by feeding on adult individuals and larvae and by plundering hive resources. Considering the capacity of other hornets in harboring honeybee viruses, the aim of this study was to identify the possible role of the Oriental hornet as a vector for honeybee viruses. Adult hornets were subjected to macroscopical examination to identify the presence of lesions, and to biomolecular investigation to detect the presence of six honeybee viruses: Acute Bee Paralysis Virus (ABPV), Black Queen Cell Virus (BQCV), Chronic Bee Paralysis Virus (CBPV), Deformed Wing Virus (DWV), Kashmir Bee Virus (KBV), Sac Brood Virus (SBV). No macroscopical alterations were found while biomolecular results showed that DWV was the most detected virus (25/30), followed by ABPV (19/30), BQCV (13/30), KBV (1/30) and SBV (1/30). No sample was found positive for CBPV. In 20/30 samples several co-infections were identified. The most frequent (17/30) was the association between DWV and ABPV, often associated to BQCV (9/17). One sample (1/30) showed the presence of four different viruses namely DWV, ABPV, BQCV and KBV. The detected viruses are the most widespread in apiaries across the Italian territory suggesting the possible passage from honeybees to V. orientalis, by predation of infected adult honeybees and larvae, and cannibalization of their carcasses. However, to date, it is still not clear if these viruses are replicative but we can suggest a role as mechanical vector of V. orientalis in spreading these viruses.
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Hoover SE, Ovinge LP, Kearns JD. Consumption of Supplemental Spring Protein Feeds by Western Honey Bee (Hymenoptera: Apidae) Colonies: Effects on Colony Growth and Pollination Potential. JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 2022; 115:417-429. [PMID: 35181788 PMCID: PMC9007243 DOI: 10.1093/jee/toac006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Adequate nutrition is required to support productive honey bee colonies, therefore beekeepers supplement colonies with additional protein at targeted time points. We tested the effects of commercially available protein feeds in spring, in advance of colonies being used for hybrid canola pollination. The feed treatments across the three-year study included the following patty types: Global 15% pollen, Global 0% pollen, Bee Pollen-Ate, FeedBee, and Healthy Bees, as well as an unsupplemented control in year two of the study only. The amount of feed consumed varied among colonies, treatments, date, and year. Similarly, there were also differences in feed efficiency (bees reared per gram of feed consumed), likely due to the relative availability of external forage sources to supplement the feed provided. Unsupplemented colonies were able to rear less brood, and subsequently had fewer adult bees than supplemented colonies, in an apiary where pollen was not abundant. Differences in consumption among treatments often failed to translate in to differences in amount of brood reared or subsequent adult population. All the protein feed treatments contained all ten amino acids essential to honey bees, however lysine and arginine were below the optimal proportion required for growth in all patties except the FeedBee patty. The amount of protein and amount and types of sugars and fats in the products also varied among product type and batch. The results of this study demonstrate a benefit to supplementary spring protein feeding to increase honey bee colony populations in advance of a summer pollination market.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shelley E Hoover
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Lethbridge, 4401 University Drive West, Lethbridge, AB T1K 3M4, Canada
| | - Lynae P Ovinge
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Lethbridge, 4401 University Drive West, Lethbridge, AB T1K 3M4, Canada
| | - Jeffery D Kearns
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Lethbridge, 4401 University Drive West, Lethbridge, AB T1K 3M4, Canada
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Piot N, Smagghe G. Critical View on the Importance of Host Defense Strategies on Virus Distribution of Bee Viruses: What Can We Learn from SARS-CoV-2 Variants? Viruses 2022; 14:503. [PMID: 35336909 PMCID: PMC8951442 DOI: 10.3390/v14030503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2022] [Revised: 02/22/2022] [Accepted: 02/26/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Bees, both wild and domesticated ones, are hosts to a plethora of viruses, with most of them infecting a wide range of bee species and genera. Although viral discovery and research on bee viruses date back over 50 years, the last decade is marked by a surge of new studies, new virus discoveries, and reports on viral transmission in and between bee species. This steep increase in research on bee viruses was mainly initiated by the global reports on honeybee colony losses and the worldwide wild bee decline, where viruses are regarded as one of the main drivers. While the knowledge gained on bee viruses has significantly progressed in a short amount of time, we believe that integration of host defense strategies and their effect on viral dynamics in the multi-host viral landscape are important aspects that are currently still missing. With the large epidemiological dataset generated over the last two years on the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, the role of these defense mechanisms in shaping viral dynamics has become eminent. Integration of these dynamics in a multi-host system would not only greatly aid the understanding of viral dynamics as a driver of wild bee decline, but we believe bee pollinators and their viruses provide an ideal system to study the multi-host viruses and their epidemiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niels Piot
- Laboratory of Agrozoology, Department of Plants and Crops, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Guy Smagghe
- Laboratory of Agrozoology, Department of Plants and Crops, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
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14
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Genetic variations and relationships between deformed wing virus strains infesting honey bees based on structural proteins. Biologia (Bratisl) 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s11756-021-00908-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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15
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Nanetti A, Bortolotti L, Cilia G. Pathogens Spillover from Honey Bees to Other Arthropods. Pathogens 2021; 10:1044. [PMID: 34451508 PMCID: PMC8400633 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10081044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2021] [Revised: 08/09/2021] [Accepted: 08/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Honey bees, and pollinators in general, play a major role in the health of ecosystems. There is a consensus about the steady decrease in pollinator populations, which raises global ecological concern. Several drivers are implicated in this threat. Among them, honey bee pathogens are transmitted to other arthropods populations, including wild and managed pollinators. The western honey bee, Apis mellifera, is quasi-globally spread. This successful species acted as and, in some cases, became a maintenance host for pathogens. This systematic review collects and summarizes spillover cases having in common Apis mellifera as the mainteinance host and some of its pathogens. The reports are grouped by final host species and condition, year, and geographic area of detection and the co-occurrence in the same host. A total of eighty-one articles in the time frame 1960-2021 were included. The reported spillover cases cover a wide range of hymenopteran host species, generally living in close contact with or sharing the same environmental resources as the honey bees. They also involve non-hymenopteran arthropods, like spiders and roaches, which are either likely or unlikely to live in close proximity to honey bees. Specific studies should consider host-dependent pathogen modifications and effects on involved host species. Both the plasticity of bee pathogens and the ecological consequences of spillover suggest a holistic approach to bee health and the implementation of a One Health approach.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Laura Bortolotti
- Council for Agricultural Research and Agricultural Economics Analysis, Centre for Agriculture and Environment Research (CREA-AA), Via di Saliceto 80, 40128 Bologna, Italy; (A.N.); (G.C.)
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16
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Honey Bee Health. Vet Sci 2021; 8:vetsci8070127. [PMID: 34357919 PMCID: PMC8310213 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci8070127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2021] [Revised: 06/18/2021] [Accepted: 06/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
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17
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Abou-Shaara H, AlAshaal S, Nasser M, Nasif O, Alharbi S. Genetic variability and phylogenetic analysis among strains of deformed wing virus infesting honey bees and other organisms. Saudi J Biol Sci 2021; 28:1548-1556. [PMID: 33732039 PMCID: PMC7938125 DOI: 10.1016/j.sjbs.2020.12.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2020] [Revised: 12/09/2020] [Accepted: 12/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Various viruses can infect honey bees, but deformed wing virus (DWV) is considered the most dangerous virus to them and has role in the sudden decline of bee colonies. This virus has different strains; however, there are no available studies to compare the characteristics of these strains utilizing bioinformatics. In this study, 27 strains of deformed wing virus were analyzed based on their sequences and their genetic relationships. Also, some primers were designed and tested to identify their ability to separate DWV strains. The percentages range from 28.99% to 29.63%, 22.28% to 22.78%, 15.73% to 16.28%, and 31.71% to 32.86% for nucleotides A, G, C, and T, respectively in all strains. The numbers of polymorphic sites as well as nucleotide diversity were highly similar in all strains. Statistical analyses generally showed the absence of high variations between sequences. Also, the phylogenetic tree classified strains into three groups. The network between strains of each group was established and discussed based on their geographical locations. Two groups contained strains from USA and Europe while one group contained strains from Asia. Rapid variations and mutations in the sequences of DWV were suggested. Notably, genetic studies on DWV are lacking in some geographical regions. The variations between strains detected in honey bees and other organisms were discussed. Four primers were designed and tested beside two reference primers. One of the designed primers showed the best results in binding with all DWV strains except one.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hossam Abou-Shaara
- Department of Plant Protection, Faculty of Agriculture, Damanhour University, Damanhour 22516, Egypt
| | - Sara AlAshaal
- Department of Entomology, Faculty of Science, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Mohamed Nasser
- Department of Entomology, Faculty of Science, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Omaima Nasif
- Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, King Saud University [Medical City], King Khalid University Hospital, PO Box 2925, Riyadh, 11461, Saudi Arabia
| | - Sulaiman Alharbi
- Department of Botany & Microbiology College of Science King, Saud University P.O Box 2455, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
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Dalmon A, Diévart V, Thomasson M, Fouque R, Vaissière BE, Guilbaud L, Le Conte Y, Henry M. Possible Spillover of Pathogens between Bee Communities Foraging on the Same Floral Resource. INSECTS 2021; 12:insects12020122. [PMID: 33573084 PMCID: PMC7911050 DOI: 10.3390/insects12020122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2020] [Revised: 01/14/2021] [Accepted: 01/25/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Simple Summary Floral resource availability is one of the keys to preserving the health of bee communities. However, flowers also present a risk of pathogen transmission, as infected pollinators could deposit pathogens while foraging, exposing other pollinators to infection via the consumption of contaminated nectar or pollen. Here, we studied, over time, the prevalence of seven viruses in bee communities that share the same small surface of floral resource in order to assess the risk of virus spillover. In total, 2057 bee specimens from 30 species were caught, identified and checked for the presence of viruses. Specimens from the Halictidae family were the dominant wild bees. The prevalence of viruses was quite high: at least one virus was detected in 78% of the samples, and co-infections were frequent. The genetic diversity of the viruses was also investigated to look for the possible association of geographic origin or host with shared ancestry. Abstract Viruses are known to contribute to bee population decline. Possible spillover is suspected from the co-occurrence of viruses in wild bees and honey bees. In order to study the risk of virus transmission between wild and managed bee species sharing the same floral resource, we tried to maximize the possible cross-infections using Phacelia tanacetifolia, which is highly attractive to honey bees and a broad range of wild bee species. Virus prevalence was compared over two years in Southern France. A total of 1137 wild bees from 29 wild bee species (based on COI barcoding) and 920 honey bees (Apis mellifera) were checked for the seven most common honey bee RNA viruses. Halictid bees were the most abundant. Co-infections were frequent, and Sacbrood virus (SBV), Black queen cell virus (BQCV), Acute bee paralysis virus (ABPV) and Israeli acute paralysis virus (IAPV) were widespread in the hymenopteran pollinator community. Conversely, Deformed wing virus (DWV) was detected at low levels in wild bees, whereas it was highly prevalent in honey bees (78.3% of the samples). Both wild bee and honey bee virus isolates were sequenced to look for possible host-specificity or geographical structuring. ABPV phylogeny suggested a specific cluster for Eucera bees, while isolates of DWV from bumble bees (Bombus spp.) clustered together with honey bee isolates, suggesting a possible spillover.
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Ullah A, Tlak Gajger I, Majoros A, Dar SA, Khan S, Kalimullah, Haleem Shah A, Nasir Khabir M, Hussain R, Khan HU, Hameed M, Anjum SI. Viral impacts on honey bee populations: A review. Saudi J Biol Sci 2021; 28:523-530. [PMID: 33424335 PMCID: PMC7783639 DOI: 10.1016/j.sjbs.2020.10.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2020] [Revised: 10/07/2020] [Accepted: 10/19/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Honey bee is vital for pollination and ecological services, boosting crops productivity in terms of quality and quantity and production of colony products: wax, royal jelly, bee venom, honey, pollen and propolis. Honey bees are most important plant pollinators and almost one third of diet depends on bee's pollination, worth billions of dollars. Hence the role that honey bees have in environment and their economic importance in food production, their health is of dominant significance. Honey bees can be infected by various pathogens like: viruses, bacteria, fungi, or infested by parasitic mites. At least more than 20 viruses have been identified to infect honey bees worldwide, generally from Dicistroviridae as well as Iflaviridae families, like ABPV (Acute Bee Paralysis Virus), BQCV (Black Queen Cell Virus), KBV (Kashmir Bee Virus), SBV (Sacbrood Virus), CBPV (Chronic bee paralysis virus), SBPV (Slow Bee Paralysis Virus) along with IAPV (Israeli acute paralysis virus), and DWV (Deformed Wing Virus) are prominent and cause infections harmful for honey bee colonies health. This issue about honey bee viruses demonstrates remarkably how diverse this field is, and considerable work has to be done to get a comprehensive interpretation of the bee virology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amjad Ullah
- Department of Zoology, Kohat University of Science and Technology, Kohat-26000, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan
| | - Ivana Tlak Gajger
- Department for Biology and Pathology of Fish and Bees, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
| | | | - Showket Ahmad Dar
- Division of Agricultural Entomology, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Kashmir, India
| | - Sanaullah Khan
- Department of Zoology, University of Peshawar, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan
| | - Kalimullah
- Department of Zoology, Kohat University of Science and Technology, Kohat-26000, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan
| | - Ayesha Haleem Shah
- Institute of Biological Sciences, Gomal University, Dera Ismail Khan, Pakistan
| | | | - Riaz Hussain
- Department of Zoology, Kohat University of Science and Technology, Kohat-26000, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan
| | - Hikmat Ullah Khan
- Department of Zoology, Kohat University of Science and Technology, Kohat-26000, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan
| | - Mehwish Hameed
- Department of Zoology, Kohat University of Science and Technology, Kohat-26000, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan
| | - Syed Ishtiaq Anjum
- Department of Zoology, Kohat University of Science and Technology, Kohat-26000, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan
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Matthijs S, De Waele V, Vandenberge V, Verhoeven B, Evers J, Brunain M, Saegerman C, De Winter PJJ, Roels S, de Graaf DC, De Regge N. Nationwide Screening for Bee Viruses and Parasites in Belgian Honey Bees. Viruses 2020; 12:v12080890. [PMID: 32823841 PMCID: PMC7472724 DOI: 10.3390/v12080890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2020] [Revised: 08/10/2020] [Accepted: 08/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The health of honey bees is threatened by multiple factors, including viruses and parasites. We screened 557 honey bee (Apis mellifera) colonies from 155 beekeepers distributed all over Belgium to determine the prevalence of seven widespread viruses and two parasites (Varroa sp. and Nosema sp.). Deformed wing virus B (DWV-B), black queen cell virus (BQCV), and sacbrood virus (SBV) were highly prevalent and detected by real-time RT-PCR in more than 95% of the colonies. Acute bee paralysis virus (ABPV), chronic bee paralysis virus (CBPV) and deformed wing virus A (DWV-A) were prevalent to a lower extent (between 18 and 29%). Most viruses were only present at low or moderate viral loads. Nevertheless, about 50% of the colonies harbored at least one virus at high viral load (>107 genome copies/bee). Varroa mites and Nosema sp. were found in 81.5% and 59.7% of the honey bee colonies, respectively, and all Nosema were identified as Nosema ceranae by real time PCR. Interestingly, we found a significant correlation between the number of Varroa mites and DWV-B viral load. To determine the combined effect of these and other factors on honey bee health in Belgium, a follow up of colonies over multiple years is necessary.
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Affiliation(s)
- Severine Matthijs
- Belgian National Reference Laboratory for Bee Diseases, Unit of Enzootic, Vector-Borne and Bee Diseases, Sciensano, Juliette Wytsmanstraat 14, 1050 Brussels, Belgium; (V.V.); (S.R.); (N.D.R.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +32-2-379-05-54
| | - Valérie De Waele
- Veterinary Epidemiology, Sciensano, Juliette Wytsmanstraat 14, 1050 Brussels, Belgium;
| | - Valerie Vandenberge
- Belgian National Reference Laboratory for Bee Diseases, Unit of Enzootic, Vector-Borne and Bee Diseases, Sciensano, Juliette Wytsmanstraat 14, 1050 Brussels, Belgium; (V.V.); (S.R.); (N.D.R.)
| | - Bénédicte Verhoeven
- Federal Agency for the Safety of the Food Chain, Kruidtuinlaan 55, 1000 Brussels, Belgium; (B.V.); (J.E.); (P.J.J.D.W.)
| | - Jacqueline Evers
- Federal Agency for the Safety of the Food Chain, Kruidtuinlaan 55, 1000 Brussels, Belgium; (B.V.); (J.E.); (P.J.J.D.W.)
| | - Marleen Brunain
- Laboratory of Molecular Entomology and Bee Pathology, Ghent University, Krijgslaan 281 S2, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; (M.B.); (D.C.d.G.)
| | - Claude Saegerman
- Research Unit of Epidemiology and Risk Analysis Applied to Veterinary Sciences, Fundamental and Applied Research for Animal and Health (FARAH) Center, University of Liège, Quartier Vallée 2, Avenue de Cureghem 7A B42, 4000 Liège, Belgium;
| | - Paul J. J. De Winter
- Federal Agency for the Safety of the Food Chain, Kruidtuinlaan 55, 1000 Brussels, Belgium; (B.V.); (J.E.); (P.J.J.D.W.)
| | - Stefan Roels
- Belgian National Reference Laboratory for Bee Diseases, Unit of Enzootic, Vector-Borne and Bee Diseases, Sciensano, Juliette Wytsmanstraat 14, 1050 Brussels, Belgium; (V.V.); (S.R.); (N.D.R.)
| | - Dirk C. de Graaf
- Laboratory of Molecular Entomology and Bee Pathology, Ghent University, Krijgslaan 281 S2, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; (M.B.); (D.C.d.G.)
| | - Nick De Regge
- Belgian National Reference Laboratory for Bee Diseases, Unit of Enzootic, Vector-Borne and Bee Diseases, Sciensano, Juliette Wytsmanstraat 14, 1050 Brussels, Belgium; (V.V.); (S.R.); (N.D.R.)
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