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Gil da Costa RM, Povey A, Medeiros-Fonseca B, Ramwell C, O'Driscoll C, Williams D, Hansen HCB, Rasmussen LH, Fletcher MT, O'Connor P, Bradshaw RHW, Robinson R, Mason J. Sixty years of research on bracken fern (Pteridium spp.) toxins: Environmental exposure, health risks and recommendations for bracken fern control. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2024; 257:119274. [PMID: 38821456 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2024.119274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2024] [Revised: 05/07/2024] [Accepted: 05/28/2024] [Indexed: 06/02/2024]
Abstract
Bracken fern (Pteridium spp.) is a highly problematic plant worldwide due to its toxicity in combination with invasive properties on former farmland, in deforested areas and on disturbed natural habitats. The carcinogenic potential of bracken ferns has caused scientific and public concern for six decades. Its genotoxic effects are linked to illudane-type glycosides (ITGs), their aglycons and derivatives. Ptaquiloside is considered the dominating ITG, but with significant contributions from other ITGs. The present review aims to compile evidence regarding environmental pollution by bracken fern ITGs, in the context of their human and animal health implications. The ITG content in bracken fern exhibits substantial spatial, temporal, and chemotaxonomic variation. Consumption of bracken fern as food is linked to human gastric cancer but also causes urinary bladder cancers in bovines browsing on bracken. Genotoxic metabolites are found in milk and meat from bracken fed animals. ITG exposure may also take place via contaminated water with recent data pointing to concentrations at microgram/L-level following rain events. Airborne ITG-exposure from spores and dust has also been documented. ITGs may synergize with major biological and environmental carcinogens like papillomaviruses and Helicobacter pylori to induce cancer, revealing novel instances of chemical and biological co-carcinogenesis. Thus, the emerging landscape from six decades of bracken research points towards a global environmental problem with increasingly complex health implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui M Gil da Costa
- Department od Morphology, Federal University of Maranhão (UFMA), São Luís, 65080-805, Brazil; Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy (LEPABE), Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465, Porto, Portugal; Associate Laboratory in Chemical Engineering (ALiCE), Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465, Porto, Portugal; Molecular Oncology and Viral Pathology Group, Research Center of IPO Porto (CI-IPOP) / RISE@CI-IPOP (Health Research Network), Portuguese Oncology Institute of Porto (IPO Porto) / Porto Comprehensive Cancer Center (Porto.CCC), 4200-072, Porto, Portugal; Centre for the Research and Technology of Agro-Environmental and Biological Sciences (CITAB), Institute for Innovation, Capacity Building and Sustainability of Agri-Food Production (Inov4Agro), 5001-801, Vila Real, Portugal.
| | - Andrew Povey
- Centre for Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Health Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, M13 9PL, UK
| | - Beatriz Medeiros-Fonseca
- Molecular Oncology and Viral Pathology Group, Research Center of IPO Porto (CI-IPOP) / RISE@CI-IPOP (Health Research Network), Portuguese Oncology Institute of Porto (IPO Porto) / Porto Comprehensive Cancer Center (Porto.CCC), 4200-072, Porto, Portugal; Centre for the Research and Technology of Agro-Environmental and Biological Sciences (CITAB), Institute for Innovation, Capacity Building and Sustainability of Agri-Food Production (Inov4Agro), 5001-801, Vila Real, Portugal
| | - Carmel Ramwell
- Fera Science Ltd, York Biotech Campus, Sand Hutton, York, YO41 1LZ, UK
| | - Connie O'Driscoll
- Ryan Hanley Consulting Engineers Ltd., 1 Galway Business Park, Dangan, Galway, H91 A3EF, Ireland
| | - David Williams
- Centre for Chemical Biology, Department of Chemistry, Sheffield Institute for Nucleic Acids, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, S3 7HF, UK
| | - Hans Chr B Hansen
- University of Copenhagen, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Thorvaldsensvej 40, DK-1871, Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - Lars Holm Rasmussen
- Novonesis, Microbe & Culture Research, Bøge Allé 10-12, DK- 2970, Hørsholm, Denmark
| | - Mary T Fletcher
- Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation, The University of Queensland, Health, and Food Science Precinct, 39 Kessels Road, Coopers Plains, QLD, 4108, Australia
| | - Peter O'Connor
- Centre for Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Health Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, M13 9PL, UK
| | - Richard H W Bradshaw
- Department of Geography and Planning, School of Environmental Sciences, University of Liverpool, L69 7ZT, UK
| | | | - James Mason
- School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity College Dublin, Ireland
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Malík M, Mika OJ, Navrátilová Z, Killi UK, Tlustoš P, Patočka J. Health and Environmental Hazards of the Toxic Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn (Bracken Fern). PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 13:18. [PMID: 38202326 PMCID: PMC10780724 DOI: 10.3390/plants13010018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2023] [Revised: 12/13/2023] [Accepted: 12/18/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024]
Abstract
Bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn) is ubiquitous and acts as a cosmopolitan weed in pastures and similar environments. Despite its historical uses, it presents risks due to toxicity. This study, conducted in the second half of 2023, aimed to assess the environmental and health hazards of P. aquilinum, primarily focusing on its carcinogenic compound, ptaquiloside. The literature was comprehensively reviewed using diverse databases, including PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, and Google Scholar. Information was synthesized from original research articles, meta-analyses, systematic reviews, and relevant animal studies. Animals grazing on bracken fern face annual production losses due to toxin exposure. The substantial impact on biodiversity, animal health, and human well-being arises from the presence of ptaquiloside and related compounds in milk, meat, and water, along with the increasing global prevalence of P. aquilinum and its swift colonization in acidic soil and fire-damaged areas. The objectives were to identify major bioactive compounds and explore their effects at molecular, cellular, pathological, and population levels. Various cooking techniques were considered to mitigate toxin exposure, although complete elimination remains unattainable. Therefore, the findings emphasize the need for cautious consumption. In conclusion, continued research is necessary to better understand and manage its environmental and health implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matěj Malík
- Department of Agroenvironmental Chemistry and Plant Nutrition, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamýcká 129, 165 00 Praha 6-Suchdol, Czech Republic; (M.M.); (P.T.)
| | - Otakar Jiří Mika
- Department of Crisis Management, Faculty of Security Management, Police Academy of the Czech Republic, Lhotecká 559/7, 143 01 Praha 4, Czech Republic
- Department of Radiology, Toxicology and Civil Protection, Faculty of Health and Social Studies, University of South Bohemia, J. Boreckého 1167/27, 370 11 České Budějovice, Czech Republic; (U.K.K.); (J.P.)
| | - Zdeňka Navrátilová
- Department of Botany, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Benátská 433/2, 128 00 Praha 2, Czech Republic;
| | - Uday Kumar Killi
- Department of Radiology, Toxicology and Civil Protection, Faculty of Health and Social Studies, University of South Bohemia, J. Boreckého 1167/27, 370 11 České Budějovice, Czech Republic; (U.K.K.); (J.P.)
| | - Pavel Tlustoš
- Department of Agroenvironmental Chemistry and Plant Nutrition, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamýcká 129, 165 00 Praha 6-Suchdol, Czech Republic; (M.M.); (P.T.)
| | - Jiří Patočka
- Department of Radiology, Toxicology and Civil Protection, Faculty of Health and Social Studies, University of South Bohemia, J. Boreckého 1167/27, 370 11 České Budějovice, Czech Republic; (U.K.K.); (J.P.)
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Hradec Králové, Hradecká 1285, 500 03 Hradec Králové, Czech Republic
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Park H, Cho Y, Lee J, Lee KM, Kim HJ, Lee J, Bahn YS, Son J. Evaluation and Monitoring of the Natural Toxin Ptaquiloside in Bracken Fern, Meat, and Dairy Products. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:toxins15030231. [PMID: 36977122 PMCID: PMC10053987 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15030231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2023] [Revised: 02/28/2023] [Accepted: 03/13/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Ptaquiloside, a naturally occurring cancer-causing substance in bracken fern, has been detected in the meat and milk of cows fed a diet containing bracken fern. A rapid and sensitive method for the quantitative analysis of ptaquiloside in bracken fern, meat, and dairy products was developed using the QuEChERS method and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The method was validated according to the Association of Official Analytical Chemists guidelines and met the criteria. A single matrix-matched calibration method with bracken fern has been proposed, which is a novel strategy that uses one calibration for multiple matrices. The calibration curve ranged from 0.1 to 50 µg/kg and showed good linearity (r2 > 0.99). The limits of detection and quantification were 0.03 and 0.09 µg/kg, respectively. The intraday and interday accuracies were 83.5-98.5%, and the precision was <9.0%. This method was used for the monitoring and exposure assessment of ptaquiloside in all routes of exposure. A total of 0.1 µg/kg of ptaquiloside was detected in free-range beef, and the daily dietary exposure of South Koreans to ptaquiloside was estimated at up to 3.0 × 10-5 µg/kg b.w./day. The significance of this study is to evaluate commercially available products in which ptaquiloside may be present, to monitor consumer safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hana Park
- Doping Control Center, Korea Institute of Science and Technology, Seoul 02792, Republic of Korea
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Yonsei University, Seoul 03722, Republic of Korea
| | - Yoeseph Cho
- Doping Control Center, Korea Institute of Science and Technology, Seoul 02792, Republic of Korea
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Institute for Immunology and Immunological Diseases, Brain Korea 21 PLUS Project for Medical Science, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul 03722, Republic of Korea
| | - JiEun Lee
- KnA Consulting, Yongin-si 16942, Republic of Korea
| | - Kang Mi Lee
- Doping Control Center, Korea Institute of Science and Technology, Seoul 02792, Republic of Korea
| | - Ho Jun Kim
- Doping Control Center, Korea Institute of Science and Technology, Seoul 02792, Republic of Korea
| | - Jaeick Lee
- Doping Control Center, Korea Institute of Science and Technology, Seoul 02792, Republic of Korea
| | - Yong-Sun Bahn
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Yonsei University, Seoul 03722, Republic of Korea
| | - Junghyun Son
- Doping Control Center, Korea Institute of Science and Technology, Seoul 02792, Republic of Korea
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Panda D, Dash BP, Manickam S, Boczkaj G. Recent advancements in LC-MS based analysis of biotoxins: Present and future challenges. MASS SPECTROMETRY REVIEWS 2022; 41:766-803. [PMID: 33624883 DOI: 10.1002/mas.21689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2020] [Revised: 02/03/2021] [Accepted: 02/05/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
There has been a rising concern regarding the harmful impact of biotoxins, source of origin, and the determination of the specific type of toxin. With numerous reports on their extensive spread, biotoxins pose a critical challenge to figure out their parent groups, metabolites, and concentration. In that aspect, liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) based analysis paves the way for its accurate identification and quantification. The biotoxins are ideally categorized as phytotoxins, mycotoxins, shellfish-toxins, ciguatoxins, cyanotoxins, and bacterial toxins such as tetrodotoxins. Considering the diverse nature of biotoxins, both low-resolution mass spectrometry (LRMS) and high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) methods have been implemented for their detection. The sample preparation strategy for complex matrix usually includes "QuEChERS" extraction or solid-phase extraction coupled with homogenization and centrifugation. For targeted analysis of biotoxins, the LRMS consisting of a tandem mass spectrometer operating in multiple reaction monitoring mode has been widely implemented. With the help of the reference standard, most of the toxins were accurately quantified. At the same time, the suspect screening and nontarget screening approach are facilitated by the HRMS platforms during the absence of reference standards. Significant progress has also been made in sampling device employment, utilizing novel sample preparation strategies, synthesizing toxin standards, employing hybrid MS platforms, and the associated data interpretation. This critical review attempts to elucidate the progress in LC-MS based analysis in the determination of biotoxins while pointing out major challenges and suggestions for future development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Debabrata Panda
- Center of Excellence (CoE), Fakir Mohan University, Nuapadhi, Odisha, India
| | - Bisnu P Dash
- Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Fakir Mohan University, Nuapadhi, Odisha, India
| | - Sivakumar Manickam
- Petroleum and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Brunei, Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei Darussalam
| | - Grzegorz Boczkaj
- Department of Process Engineering and Chemical Technology, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdansk University of Technology, Gdańsk, Poland
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Mrkajic NS, Hama JR, Strobel BW, Hansen HCB, Rasmussen LH, Pedersen AK, Christensen SCB, Hedegaard MJ. Removal of phytotoxins in filter sand used for drinking water treatment. WATER RESEARCH 2021; 205:117610. [PMID: 34649082 PMCID: PMC8556162 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2021.117610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2021] [Revised: 08/20/2021] [Accepted: 08/23/2021] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Phytotoxins - toxins produced by plants - are contaminants with the potential to impair drinking water quality. They encompass a large group of toxic, partially persistent compounds that have been detected in seepage waters and in shallow wells used for drinking water production. If phytotoxins enter wells used for drinking water production, it is essential to know if the drinking water treatment processes will remove them from the water phase. However, it is currently unknown whether phytotoxins remain stable during traditional groundwater treatment using sand filters as the main treatment process. The objective of this study is to investigate removal potential of phytotoxins in biological sand filters and to asses if the removal potential is similar at different waterworks. Microcosms were set up with filter sand and drinking water collected at different groundwater-based waterworks. To be able to monitor phytotoxin removal ptaquiloside, caudatoside, gramine, sparteine, jacobine N-oxide, senecionine N-oxide and caffeine were applied at initial concentrations of 300 µg L-1, which is approx. two orders of magnitude higher than currently detected in environment, but expected to cover extreme environmental conditions. Removal was monitored over a period of 14 days. Despite the high initial concentration, all filter sands removed ptaquiloside and caudatoside completely from the water phase and at waterworks where pellet softening was implemented (pH 8.4) prior to rapid sand filtration, complete removal occurred within the first 30 min. All filter sands removed gramine and sparteine, primarily by a biological process, while jacobine N-oxide, senecionine N-oxide and caffeine were recalcitrant in the filter sands. During degradation of ptaquiloside and caudatoside we observed formation and subsequent removal of degradation products pterosin B and A. Filter sands with the highest removal potential were characterised by high contents of deposited iron and manganese oxides and hence large specific surface areas. Difference between bacterial communities investigated by 16S rRNA gene analyses did not explain different removal in the filter sands. All five investigated filter sands showed similar degradation patterns regardless of water chemistry and waterworks of origin. In drinking water treatment systems biological sand filters might therefore remove phytotoxin contaminants such as ptaquiloside, caudatoside, gramine, sparteine, while for other compounds e.g. jacobine N-oxide, senecionine N-oxide further investigations involving more advanced treatment options are needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natasa Skrbic Mrkajic
- Greater Copenhagen Utility HOFOR, Parkstien 10, 2450, Copenhagen, Denmark; Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871 Frederiksberg, Denmark
| | - Jawameer R Hama
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871 Frederiksberg, Denmark
| | - Bjarne W Strobel
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871 Frederiksberg, Denmark
| | - Hans Chr B Hansen
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871 Frederiksberg, Denmark
| | - Lars Holm Rasmussen
- Department of Technology, University College Copenhagen, Sigurdsgade 26, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark
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Rasmussen LH. Presence of the carcinogen ptaquiloside in fern-based food products and traditional medicine: Four cases of human exposure. Curr Res Food Sci 2021; 4:557-564. [PMID: 34458862 PMCID: PMC8379286 DOI: 10.1016/j.crfs.2021.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2021] [Revised: 08/11/2021] [Accepted: 08/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Ptaquiloside (PTA) is a natural carcinogen present in many ferns. Brackens (Pteridium sp.) contain PTA and are classified by WHO/IARC as ‘ … possibly carcinogenic to humans’, however, these ferns are used in food, traditional medicine and as food supplements around the world. This study aimed to outline the presence of PTA in different human exposure routes by using and validating an LC-MS based protocol to test the contents of PTA in commercial products, the degradation product Pterosin B (PtB) and wild specimens from Europe, Asia and North America. The Limit of Detection of the protocol was 0.024 μg g−1 for PTA and 0.028 μg g−1 for PtB. PTA and PtB were present in most wild specimens (PTA: BD – 6300 ± 520 μg g−1; PtB: BD - 449 ± 1 μg g−1) while commercial products made from fronds, as well as fronds prepared as traditional Chinese medicine, were in the range 44 ± 3 to 666 ± 33 μg g−1 for PTA and BD to 1653 ± 184 μg g−1 for PtB. This study did not find PTA/PtB in rhizomes and products made thereof nor in homoeopathic products based on bracken. Boiling or drying bracken showed to reduce PTA some degree but cannot remove it completely. Interestingly, crosiers with no PTA/PtB were found in the USA, indicating a potential for commercial production of PTA-free fronds. Ptaquiloside is a natural carcinogen found in fern-based food products and natural remedies. Bracken ferns collected in the wild contain ptaquiloside after processing. Commercial dried bracken fronds (leaves) contain high levels of ptaquiloside. Commercial products based on rhizomes and some natural remedies contain no ptaquiloside. Presence of no-ptaquiloside ferns indicate potential of growing non-toxic cultivars.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lars Holm Rasmussen
- Department of Technology, University College Copenhagen, Sigurdsgade 26, DK2200, Copenhagen N, Denmark
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