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Snijders L, Thierij NM, Appleby R, St. Clair CC, Tobajas J. Conditioned Taste Aversion as a Tool for Mitigating Human-Wildlife Conflicts. FRONTIERS IN CONSERVATION SCIENCE 2021. [DOI: 10.3389/fcosc.2021.744704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Modern wildlife management has dual mandates to reduce human-wildlife conflict (HWC) for burgeoning populations of people while supporting conservation of biodiversity and the ecosystem functions it affords. These opposing goals can sometimes be achieved with non-lethal intervention tools that promote coexistence between people and wildlife. One such tool is conditioned taste aversion (CTA), the application of an evolutionary relevant learning paradigm in which an animal associates a transitory illness to the taste, odor or other characteristic of a particular food item, resulting in a long-term change in its perception of palatability. Despite extensive support for the power of CTA in laboratory studies, field studies have exhibited mixed results, which erodes manager confidence in using this tool. Here we review the literature on CTA in the context of wildlife conservation and management and discuss how success could be increased with more use of learning theory related to CTA, particularly selective association, stimulus salience, stimulus generalization, and extinction of behavior. We apply learning theory to the chronological stages of CTA application in the field and illustrate them by synthesizing and reviewing past applications of CTA in HWC situations. Specifically, we discuss (1) when CTA is suitable, (2) how aversion can be most effectively (and safely) established, (3) how generalization of aversion from treated to untreated food can be stimulated and (4) how extinction of aversion can be avoided. For each question, we offer specific implementation suggestions and methods for achieving them, which we summarize in a decision-support table that might be used by managers to guide their use of CTA across a range of contexts. Additionally, we highlight promising ideas that may further improve the effectiveness of CTA field applications in the future. With this review, we aspire to demonstrate the diverse past applications of CTA as a non-lethal tool in wildlife management and conservation and facilitate greater application and efficacy in the future.
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Abstract
Recent work in taste-aversion learning has revealed a new phenomenon in classical conditioning. When a preconditioned gustatory cue (taste or odor) is conditioned in compound with a second gustatory cue, conditioning to the second cue is augmented. This enhanced conditioning of the second cue is noteworthy because studies with other forms of classical conditioning have shown blocked conditioning to the second cue. This new phenomenon has been termed augmentation, and it has implications for the study of taste and odor interactions, formal models of learning, and clinical interventions with cancer patients.
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Extinction of taste aversion does not eliminate taste-mediated aversion to visual cues: Replicating Lett (1984). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013. [DOI: 10.3758/bf03334951] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Lin JY, Roman C, Reilly S. Taste-potentiated odor aversion learning in rats with lesions of the insular cortex. Brain Res 2009; 1297:135-42. [PMID: 19703430 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2009.08.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2009] [Revised: 08/08/2009] [Accepted: 08/16/2009] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The current study assessed the influence of excitotoxic lesions of the insular cortex (IC) on taste-potentiated odor aversion (TPOA) learning. Water-deprived rats initially received a single odor-toxicosis or odor/taste-toxicosis pairing and were subsequently tested, in separate trials, with the odor and the taste stimulus. Indicating TPOA, neurologically intact rats conditioned with the odor/taste compound stimulus acquired significantly stronger odor aversions than normal rats conditioned with the odor stimulus. IC lesions disrupted TPOA, conditioned taste aversion and taste neophobia. The finding that taste did not potentiate odor aversion learning in the IC-lesioned rats provides support for the "within-compound association" analysis but is inconsistent with the "sensory-and-gate" account of TPOA learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian-You Lin
- Department of Psychology, University of Illinois at Chicago, 1007 West Harrison Street, Chicago, IL 60607, USA
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Schnelker J, Batsell WR. Within-compound associations are not sufficient to produce taste-mediated odor potentiation. Behav Processes 2006; 73:142-8. [PMID: 16716536 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2006.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2005] [Revised: 03/02/2006] [Accepted: 04/18/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Rats were used in two flavor-aversion experiments to determine if within-compound associations could be detected with a taste+odor compound that would not support taste-mediated odor potentation. In Experiment 1, following taste+odor compound conditioning, postconditioning taste extinction significantly weakened the odor aversion. In Experiment 2, following taste+odor compound conditioning, postconditioning taste inflation significantly strengthened the odor aversion. There was no evidence that taste potentiated the odor aversion in either Experiment 1 or 2. Thus, the results demonstrate that the presence of within-compound associations is not sufficient to produce taste-mediated odor potentiation. We offer a mediated conditioning explanation to account for the results of these two experiments.
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Salt discrimination in domestic pigeons (Columba livia domestica): poisonous LiCl solution versus equimolar safe NaCl solution. J ETHOL 2005. [DOI: 10.1007/s10164-005-0161-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Trost CA, Batsell WR. Taste + odor interactions in compound aversion conditioning. Learn Behav 2004; 32:440-53. [PMID: 15825885 DOI: 10.3758/bf03196040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2003] [Accepted: 03/25/2004] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
In three experiments with rats, taste + odor interactions in compound aversion conditioning were investigated. In Experiment 1, two odors (0.02% almond and 0.02% orange) were compared on single-element odor aversions, taste (denatonium) potentiated odor aversions, and potentiated odor aversions following taste extinction. Although no odor differences were seen following single-element conditioning, both types of potentiated orange odor aversions were stronger than their almond odor counterparts. These data show that odors of similar conditionability are differentially potentiated by the same taste. To determine whether these differences were due to unique perceptual representations, the effects of elemental extinction or compound extinction on aversions to the compound were investigated in Experiments 2 and 3. In Experiment 2, orange odor extinction weakened responding to the compound significantly more than taste extinction did. In contrast, almond odor extinction and taste extinction produced similar decrements in responding to the compound in Experiment 3. These results suggest that the perceptual representation of these specific taste + odor compounds are different, and they are discussed in regard to configural and within-compound association accounts of potentiation.
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Batsell WR, Trost CA, Cochran SR, Blankenship AG, Batson JD. Effects of postconditioning inflation on odor + taste compound conditioning. Learn Behav 2003; 31:173-84. [PMID: 12882376 DOI: 10.3758/bf03195980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2002] [Accepted: 12/16/2002] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The within-compound association approach has been proposed as an account of synergistic conditioning in flavor aversion learning. One prediction from the within-compound association approach is that following taste + odor compound conditioning, postconditioning inflation of one element of the compound should increase responding to the second element. In four experiments with rats, the AX+/A+ design was used to determine whether postconditioning inflation of A would increase responding to X. In Experiments 1 and 3, responding to X was significantly stronger after AX+/A+ conditioning, as compared with AX+ conditioning. In Experiments 2 and 4, the specificity of the inflation effect was demonstrated, because AX+/A+ conditioning produced a stronger aversion to X than did AX+/B+ conditioning. Furthermore, it appears that the taste + odor association is symmetrical because inflation of the taste aversion increased responding to the odor (Experiments 1 and 2) and inflation of the odor aversion increased responding to the taste (Experiments 3 and 4).
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Affiliation(s)
- W Robert Batsell
- Department of Psychology, Kalamazoo College, Kalamazoo, Michigan 49006, USA.
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Batsell WR, Paschall GY, Gleason DI, Batson JD. Taste preconditioning augments odor-aversion learning. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2001. [DOI: 10.1037/0097-7403.27.1.30] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Forestell CA, LoLordo VM. Can Orally Consumed Calories Condition Preferences for Relatively Unacceptable Tastes? LEARNING AND MOTIVATION 2000. [DOI: 10.1006/lmot.1999.1048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Evidence for within-compound learning in an instrumental conditioning with rats. Behav Processes 1999; 44:317-22. [DOI: 10.1016/s0376-6357(98)00040-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/1998] [Revised: 09/15/1998] [Accepted: 09/17/1998] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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An ear for quality: Differential associative characteristics of taste-potentiated auditory and odor avoidance. Physiol Behav 1996. [DOI: 10.1016/s0031-9384(96)80001-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Abstract
The present experiments assessed poison-based aversion learning and retention in freely feeding and drinking domestic chicks whose drinking water was colored blue and adulterated with LiCl for a 24-hr period. The amount of LiCl self-administered by 11-day-old chicks and their subsequent avoidance of unadulterated water of the same color was examined. The results of four experiments demonstrated that chicks self-administered large and often lethal doses of the LiCl solution. Chicks subsequently avoided blue water during two-bottle preference tests administered 3 to 7 days but not 14 days after exposure. These data indicate that neophobia alone is insufficient to prevent nondeprived chicks from ingesting large quantities of a toxin during their initial encounter with it. The lack of long-term retention in the present experiments indicates that naturally occurring aversions based on visual and illness cues, while effective in the short term, may not be a major factor in the choices made by freely feeding and drinking chicks over the long term.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Hayne
- Department of Psychology, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey 08903, USA
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Schneider K, Pinnow M. Olfactory and gustatory stimuli in food-aversion learning of rats. THE JOURNAL OF GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY 1994; 121:169-83. [PMID: 8083674 DOI: 10.1080/00221309.1994.9711183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Two studies of food-aversion learning in the rat examined some crucial conditions for the potentiation of an odor component by a novel taste. Wistar rats were exposed twice to an odor-taste compound and then were treated either immediately or the next day with lithium chloride, a noxious substance. Immediately poisoned rats acquired an aversion to the odor component when it was paired with a familiar taste. Only in one experimental condition did some weak conditioning occur: when the new odor was presented together with a new taste. Thus, the classical phenomenon of overshadowing of the less salient odor component by the more salient taste was observed in all of our studies. This was true for situations in which the odor was presented near the drinking spout as well as for situations in which the odor was presented at some distance in front of the drinking source (Experiment 1). In addition, the weaker an odor component was, the more easily it was overshadowed by the taste (Experiment 2). All results fit well into classical rules of Pavlovian conditioning and fail to support the assumption that special mechanisms exist in food-related odor conditioning in rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Schneider
- Faculty of Psychology, Ruhr-University, Bochum, Germany
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Pinnow M, Schneider K. Mimetic behavior of rats in flavor aversion learning. Behav Processes 1994; 31:1-12. [DOI: 10.1016/0376-6357(94)90033-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/17/1993] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Abstract
This study sought to determine whether a taste can potentiate a conditioned odor aversion based on amphetamine as well as those based on lithium. A taste-potentiated odor aversion (TPOA) based on lithium was obtained in Experiment 1 only with a low concentration of an almond odor. This concentration was used in Experiment 2 where the taste, 0.1% saccharin, potentiated an odor aversion based on 1 mg/kg d-amphetamine. This was replicated in Experiment 3 where potentiation was found with doses of both 1 and 3 mg/kg amphetamine, and no effect of dose was detected. It was concluded that TPOA learning is not restricted to drugs such as lithium that produce conditioned unpalatability as well as conditioned aversions to a taste, because amphetamine does not produce conditioned unpalatability at the doses used here. Furthermore, because in Experiment 3 postconditioning extinction of the saccharin aversion removed the potentiation effect, it appears that this form of TPOA may depend on an association between the odor and taste, as proposed by within-compound theory.
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Affiliation(s)
- P A Bryant
- Department of Psychology, University of Sydney, NSW, Australia
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Holder MD. Conditioned preferences for the taste and odor components of flavors: blocking but not overshadowing. Appetite 1991; 17:29-45. [PMID: 1952914 DOI: 10.1016/0195-6663(91)90082-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Sprague-Dawley rats were given two water bottles. One bottle contained sucrose and the other did not. Distinctive odors and/or tastes were paired with sucrose or plain water solutions. Preferences for the odor and taste were then measured under iso-caloric conditions when the rats were and were not food deprived. The rats preferred the odor or taste that had previously been paired with sucrose. The strength of this preference increased when the rats were food deprived suggesting that the effect was calorie mediated. The development of a preference to the odor or taste was not affected by the addition of a taste or odor; there was no evidence of overshadowing. Conditioned taste and odor preferences were partially blocked by prior pairing of the odor or taste with sucrose. The absence of overshadowing, but not the presence of blocking, was predicted by a theory of associative learning which treats odors as conditioned stimuli, tastes as unconditioned stimuli and ingestional consequences (e.g. calories or illness) as a new category referred to as feedback.
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Affiliation(s)
- M D Holder
- Department of Psychology, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, Canada
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Droungas A, LoLordo VM. Taste-mediated potentiation of odor aversion induced by lithium choloride: Effects of preconditioning exposure to the conditioned stimulus and postoconditioning extinction of the taste aversion. LEARNING AND MOTIVATION 1991. [DOI: 10.1016/0023-9690(91)90010-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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The effects of taste extinction on ingestional potentiation in weanling rats. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1990. [DOI: 10.3758/bf03205326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Davis SF, Best MR, Grover CA. Toxicosis-mediated potentiation in a taste/taste compound: Evidence for within-compound associations. LEARNING AND MOTIVATION 1988. [DOI: 10.1016/0023-9690(88)90012-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Bouton ME, Jones DL, McPhillips SA, Swartzentruber D. Potentiation and overshadowing in odor-aversion learning: Role of method of odor presentation, the distal-proximal cue distinction, and the conditionability of odor. LEARNING AND MOTIVATION 1986. [DOI: 10.1016/0023-9690(86)90006-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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The effects of stimulus preexposure on taste-mediated environmental conditioning: Potentiation and overshadowing. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1986. [DOI: 10.3758/bf03200030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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