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Eaton SL, Murdoch F, Rzechorzek NM, Thompson G, Hartley C, Blacklock BT, Proudfoot C, Lillico SG, Tennant P, Ritchie A, Nixon J, Brennan PM, Guido S, Mitchell NL, Palmer DN, Whitelaw CBA, Cooper JD, Wishart TM. Modelling Neurological Diseases in Large Animals: Criteria for Model Selection and Clinical Assessment. Cells 2022; 11:cells11172641. [PMID: 36078049 PMCID: PMC9454934 DOI: 10.3390/cells11172641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2022] [Revised: 08/19/2022] [Accepted: 08/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Issue: The impact of neurological disorders is recognised globally, with one in six people affected in their lifetime and few treatments to slow or halt disease progression. This is due in part to the increasing ageing population, and is confounded by the high failure rate of translation from rodent-derived therapeutics to clinically effective human neurological interventions. Improved translation is demonstrated using higher order mammals with more complex/comparable neuroanatomy. These animals effectually span this translational disparity and increase confidence in factors including routes of administration/dosing and ability to scale, such that potential therapeutics will have successful outcomes when moving to patients. Coupled with advancements in genetic engineering to produce genetically tailored models, livestock are increasingly being used to bridge this translational gap. Approach: In order to aid in standardising characterisation of such models, we provide comprehensive neurological assessment protocols designed to inform on neuroanatomical dysfunction and/or lesion(s) for large animal species. We also describe the applicability of these exams in different large animals to help provide a better understanding of the practicalities of cross species neurological disease modelling. Recommendation: We would encourage the use of these assessments as a reference framework to help standardise neurological clinical scoring of large animal models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samantha L. Eaton
- Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies and Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, UK
- Correspondence: (S.L.E.); (T.M.W.); Tel.: +44-(0)-131-651-9125 (S.L.E.); +44-(0)-131-651-9233 (T.M.W.)
| | - Fraser Murdoch
- Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies and Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Nina M. Rzechorzek
- Medical Research Council Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Francis Crick Avenue, Cambridge CB2 0QH, UK
| | - Gerard Thompson
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Chancellor’s Building, 49 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, NHS Lothian, 50 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh EH16 4TJ, UK
| | - Claudia Hartley
- Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies and Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Benjamin Thomas Blacklock
- Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies and Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Chris Proudfoot
- The Large Animal Research & Imaging Facility, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies and Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Simon G. Lillico
- Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies and Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Peter Tennant
- The Large Animal Research & Imaging Facility, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies and Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Adrian Ritchie
- The Large Animal Research & Imaging Facility, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies and Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, UK
| | - James Nixon
- The Large Animal Research & Imaging Facility, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies and Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Paul M. Brennan
- Translational Neurosurgery, Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Stefano Guido
- Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies and Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, UK
- Bioresearch & Veterinary Services, University of Edinburgh, Chancellor’s Building, 49 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Nadia L. Mitchell
- Faculty of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Lincoln University, P.O. Box 85084, Lincoln 7647, New Zealand
| | - David N. Palmer
- Faculty of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Lincoln University, P.O. Box 85084, Lincoln 7647, New Zealand
| | - C. Bruce A. Whitelaw
- Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies and Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Jonathan D. Cooper
- Departments of Pediatrics, Genetics, and Neurology, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, 660 S Euclid Ave, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Thomas M. Wishart
- Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies and Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, UK
- Correspondence: (S.L.E.); (T.M.W.); Tel.: +44-(0)-131-651-9125 (S.L.E.); +44-(0)-131-651-9233 (T.M.W.)
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Murray SJ, Mitchell NL. The Translational Benefits of Sheep as Large Animal Models of Human Neurological Disorders. Front Vet Sci 2022; 9:831838. [PMID: 35242840 PMCID: PMC8886239 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2022.831838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2021] [Accepted: 01/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The past two decades have seen a considerable rise in the use of sheep to model human neurological disorders. While each animal model has its merits, sheep have many advantages over small animal models when it comes to studies on the brain. In particular, sheep have brains more comparable in size and structure to the human brain. They also have much longer life spans and are docile animals, making them useful for a wide range of in vivo studies. Sheep are amenable to regular blood and cerebrospinal fluid sampling which aids in biomarker discovery and monitoring of treatment efficacy. Several neurological diseases have been found to occur naturally in sheep, however sheep can also be genetically engineered or experimentally manipulated to recapitulate disease or injury. Many of these types of sheep models are currently being used for pre-clinical therapeutic trials, particularly gene therapy, with studies from several models culminating in potential treatments moving into clinical trials. This review will provide an overview of the benefits of using sheep to model neurological conditions, and highlight naturally occurring and experimentally induced sheep models that have demonstrated translational validity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samantha J Murray
- Faculty of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Lincoln University, Canterbury, New Zealand
| | - Nadia L Mitchell
- Faculty of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Lincoln University, Canterbury, New Zealand
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Esteves A, Vieira-Pinto M, Quintas H, Orge L, Gama A, Alves A, Seixas F, Pires I, Pinto MDL, Mendonça AP, Lima C, Machado CN, Silva JC, Tavares P, Silva F, Bastos E, Pereira J, Gonçalves-Anjo N, Carvalho P, Sargo R, Matos A, Figueira L, Pires MDA. Scrapie at Abattoir: Monitoring, Control, and Differential Diagnosis of Wasting Conditions during Meat Inspection. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:3028. [PMID: 34827761 PMCID: PMC8614523 DOI: 10.3390/ani11113028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2021] [Revised: 10/15/2021] [Accepted: 10/18/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Wasting disease in small ruminants is frequently detected at slaughterhouses. The wasting disorder is manifested by the deterioration of the nutritional and physiological state of the animal indicated by thinness, emaciation, and cachexia. Evidence of emaciation and cachexia, alone, are pathological conditions leading to carcass condemnation during an inspection. Several diseases are associated with a wasting condition, including scrapie, pseudotuberculosis, tuberculosis, paratuberculosis, Maedi Visna, and tumor diseases. On the other hand, parasitic diseases, nutrition disorders, exposure or ingestion of toxins, metabolic conditions, inadequate nutrition due to poor teeth, or poor alimentary diet are conditions contributing to poor body condition. Classical and atypical scrapie is naturally occurring transmissible spongiform encephalopathies in small ruminants. The etiological agent for each one is prions. However, each of these scrapie types is epidemiologically, pathologically, and biochemically different. Though atypical scrapie occurs at low incidence, it is consistently prevalent in the small ruminant population. Hence, it is advisable to include differential diagnosis of this disease, from other possibilities, as a cause of wasting conditions detected during meat inspection at the abattoir. This manuscript is a review of the measures in force at the abattoir for scrapie control, focusing on the differential diagnosis of gross lesions related to wasting conditions detected in small ruminants during meat inspection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Esteves
- Animal and Veterinary Research Centre (CECAV), University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro (UTAD), 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal; (M.V.-P.); (L.O.); (A.G.); (A.A.); (F.S.); (I.P.); (M.d.L.P.); (F.S.); (J.P.); (R.S.)
| | - Madalena Vieira-Pinto
- Animal and Veterinary Research Centre (CECAV), University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro (UTAD), 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal; (M.V.-P.); (L.O.); (A.G.); (A.A.); (F.S.); (I.P.); (M.d.L.P.); (F.S.); (J.P.); (R.S.)
| | - Hélder Quintas
- Centro de Investigação de Montanha (CIMO), Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Campus de Santa Apolónia, 5300-253 Bragança, Portugal;
| | - Leonor Orge
- Animal and Veterinary Research Centre (CECAV), University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro (UTAD), 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal; (M.V.-P.); (L.O.); (A.G.); (A.A.); (F.S.); (I.P.); (M.d.L.P.); (F.S.); (J.P.); (R.S.)
- Pathology Laboratory, UEISPSA, National Institute for Agricultural and Veterinary Research (INIAV), I.P., 2780-157 Oeiras, Portugal; (A.P.M.); (C.N.M.); (J.C.S.); (P.C.)
| | - Adelina Gama
- Animal and Veterinary Research Centre (CECAV), University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro (UTAD), 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal; (M.V.-P.); (L.O.); (A.G.); (A.A.); (F.S.); (I.P.); (M.d.L.P.); (F.S.); (J.P.); (R.S.)
| | - Anabela Alves
- Animal and Veterinary Research Centre (CECAV), University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro (UTAD), 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal; (M.V.-P.); (L.O.); (A.G.); (A.A.); (F.S.); (I.P.); (M.d.L.P.); (F.S.); (J.P.); (R.S.)
| | - Fernanda Seixas
- Animal and Veterinary Research Centre (CECAV), University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro (UTAD), 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal; (M.V.-P.); (L.O.); (A.G.); (A.A.); (F.S.); (I.P.); (M.d.L.P.); (F.S.); (J.P.); (R.S.)
| | - Isabel Pires
- Animal and Veterinary Research Centre (CECAV), University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro (UTAD), 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal; (M.V.-P.); (L.O.); (A.G.); (A.A.); (F.S.); (I.P.); (M.d.L.P.); (F.S.); (J.P.); (R.S.)
| | - Maria de Lurdes Pinto
- Animal and Veterinary Research Centre (CECAV), University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro (UTAD), 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal; (M.V.-P.); (L.O.); (A.G.); (A.A.); (F.S.); (I.P.); (M.d.L.P.); (F.S.); (J.P.); (R.S.)
| | - Ana Paula Mendonça
- Pathology Laboratory, UEISPSA, National Institute for Agricultural and Veterinary Research (INIAV), I.P., 2780-157 Oeiras, Portugal; (A.P.M.); (C.N.M.); (J.C.S.); (P.C.)
| | - Carla Lima
- Pathology Laboratory, UEISPSA, National Institute for Agricultural and Veterinary Research (INIAV), I.P., 4485-655 Vila do Conde, Portugal; (C.L.); (P.T.)
| | - Carla Neves Machado
- Pathology Laboratory, UEISPSA, National Institute for Agricultural and Veterinary Research (INIAV), I.P., 2780-157 Oeiras, Portugal; (A.P.M.); (C.N.M.); (J.C.S.); (P.C.)
| | - João Carlos Silva
- Pathology Laboratory, UEISPSA, National Institute for Agricultural and Veterinary Research (INIAV), I.P., 2780-157 Oeiras, Portugal; (A.P.M.); (C.N.M.); (J.C.S.); (P.C.)
| | - Paula Tavares
- Pathology Laboratory, UEISPSA, National Institute for Agricultural and Veterinary Research (INIAV), I.P., 4485-655 Vila do Conde, Portugal; (C.L.); (P.T.)
| | - Filipe Silva
- Animal and Veterinary Research Centre (CECAV), University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro (UTAD), 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal; (M.V.-P.); (L.O.); (A.G.); (A.A.); (F.S.); (I.P.); (M.d.L.P.); (F.S.); (J.P.); (R.S.)
| | - Estela Bastos
- Centre for the Research and Technology of Agro-Environmental and Biological Sciences (CITAB), University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro (UTAD), 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal;
- Genetic Department, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro (UTAD), 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal;
| | - Jorge Pereira
- Animal and Veterinary Research Centre (CECAV), University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro (UTAD), 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal; (M.V.-P.); (L.O.); (A.G.); (A.A.); (F.S.); (I.P.); (M.d.L.P.); (F.S.); (J.P.); (R.S.)
| | - Nuno Gonçalves-Anjo
- Genetic Department, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro (UTAD), 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal;
| | - Paulo Carvalho
- Pathology Laboratory, UEISPSA, National Institute for Agricultural and Veterinary Research (INIAV), I.P., 2780-157 Oeiras, Portugal; (A.P.M.); (C.N.M.); (J.C.S.); (P.C.)
| | - Roberto Sargo
- Animal and Veterinary Research Centre (CECAV), University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro (UTAD), 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal; (M.V.-P.); (L.O.); (A.G.); (A.A.); (F.S.); (I.P.); (M.d.L.P.); (F.S.); (J.P.); (R.S.)
| | - Ana Matos
- Research Center for Natural Resources, Environment and Society (CERNAS), Polytechnic Institute of Castelo Branco (IPCB), 6000-767 Castelo Branco, Portugal;
- Quality of Life in the Rural World (Q-Rural), Polytechnic Institute of Castelo Branco (IPCB), 6000-767 Castelo Branco, Portugal;
| | - Luís Figueira
- Quality of Life in the Rural World (Q-Rural), Polytechnic Institute of Castelo Branco (IPCB), 6000-767 Castelo Branco, Portugal;
| | - Maria dos Anjos Pires
- Animal and Veterinary Research Centre (CECAV), University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro (UTAD), 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal; (M.V.-P.); (L.O.); (A.G.); (A.A.); (F.S.); (I.P.); (M.d.L.P.); (F.S.); (J.P.); (R.S.)
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Horigan V, Gale P, Adkin A, Konold T, Cassar C, Spiropoulos J, Kelly L. Assessing the aggregated probability of entry of a novel prion disease agent into the United Kingdom. MICROBIAL RISK ANALYSIS 2020; 16:100134. [PMID: 32837979 PMCID: PMC7428426 DOI: 10.1016/j.mran.2020.100134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2020] [Revised: 07/06/2020] [Accepted: 08/10/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
In 2018 prion disease was detected in camels at an abattoir in Algeria for the first time. The emergence of prion disease in this species made it prudent to assess the probability of entry of the pathogen into the United Kingdom (UK) from this region. Potentially contaminated products were identified as evidenced by other prion diseases. The aggregated probability of entry of the pathogen was estimated as very high and high for legal milk and cheese imports respectively and very high, high and high for illegal meat, milk and cheese products respectively. This aggregated probability represents a qualitative assessment of the probability of one or more entry events per year into the UK; it gives no indication of the number of entry events per year. The uncertainty associated with these estimates was high due to the unknown variation in prevalence of infection in camels and an uncertain number and type of illegal products entering the UK. Potential public health implications of this pathogen are unknown although there is currently no evidence of zoonotic transmission of prion diseases other than bovine spongiform encephalopathy to humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Verity Horigan
- Department of Epidemiological Sciences, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, New Haw, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Paul Gale
- Department of Epidemiological Sciences, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, New Haw, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Amie Adkin
- Department of Epidemiological Sciences, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, New Haw, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Timm Konold
- Department of Pathology, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, New Haw, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Claire Cassar
- Department of Pathology, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, New Haw, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - John Spiropoulos
- Department of Pathology, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, New Haw, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Louise Kelly
- Department of Epidemiological Sciences, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, New Haw, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
- Department of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Strathclyde, 26 Richmond St, Glasgow G1 1XH, UK
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Konold T, Spiropoulos J, Thorne J, Phelan L, Fothergill L, Rajanayagam B, Floyd T, Vidana B, Charnley J, Coates N, Simmons M. The Scrapie Prevalence in a Goat Herd Is Underestimated by Using a Rapid Diagnostic Test. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2020; 8:164. [PMID: 32226784 PMCID: PMC7081731 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2020.00164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2019] [Accepted: 02/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Current European surveillance regulations for scrapie, a naturally occurring transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (TSE) or prion disease in sheep and goats, require testing of fallen stock or healthy slaughter animals, and outline measures in the case of confirmation of disease. An outbreak of classical scrapie in a herd with 2500 goats led to the culling of the whole herd, providing the opportunity to examine a subset of goats, take samples, and examine them for the presence of disease-associated prion protein (PrPSc) to provide further information on scrapie test sensitivity, pathology, and association with prion protein genotype. Goats were examined clinically prior to cull, and the brains examined post mortem by Bio-Rad ELISA, a rapid screening test used for active surveillance in sheep and goats, and two confirmatory tests, Western blot and immunohistochemistry. Furthermore, up to 10 lymphoid tissues were examined by immunohistochemistry. Of 151 goats examined, three (2.0%) tested positive for scrapie by ELISA on brain, confirmed by confirmatory tests, and a further five (3.3%) were negative by ELISA but positive by at least one of the confirmatory tests. Only two of these, both positive by ELISA, displayed evident signs of scrapie. In addition, 10 (6.6%) goats, which also included two clinical suspects, were negative on brain examination but had detectable PrPSc in lymphoid tissue. PrPSc was detected most frequently in the medial retropharyngeal lymph node (LN; 94.4% of all 18 cases) and palatine tonsil (88.9%). Abnormal behavior and circling or loss of balance when blindfolded were the best clinical discriminators for scrapie status. None of the goats that carried a single allele in the prion protein gene associated with increased resistance to scrapie (Q211, K222, S146) were scrapie-positive, and the percentage of goats with these alleles was greater than expected from previous surveys. Significantly more goats that were scrapie-positive were isoleucine homozygous at codon 142 (II142). The results indicate that the sensitivity of the applied screening test is poor in goats compared to the confirmatory tests as gold standard, particularly for asymptomatic animals. Sensitivity of surveillance could be improved by testing retropharyngeal LN or palatine tonsil in addition to brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timm Konold
- Pathology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency Weybridge, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - John Spiropoulos
- Pathology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency Weybridge, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Jemma Thorne
- Pathology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency Weybridge, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Laura Phelan
- Pathology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency Weybridge, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Louise Fothergill
- Central Sequencing Unit, Animal and Plant Health Agency Weybridge, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Brenda Rajanayagam
- Department of Epidemiological Sciences, Animal and Plant Health Agency Weybridge, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Tobias Floyd
- Pathology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency Weybridge, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Beatriz Vidana
- Pathology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency Weybridge, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Judith Charnley
- Animal and Plant Health England Field Delivery, Skipton, United Kingdom
| | - Nadya Coates
- TSE/BVDV Testing Laboratory, Eurofins Forensic Services, Risley, United Kingdom
| | - Marion Simmons
- Pathology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency Weybridge, Addlestone, United Kingdom
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Madsen-Bouterse SA, Highland MA, Dassanayake RP, Zhuang D, Schneider DA. Low-volume goat milk transmission of classical scrapie to lambs and goat kids. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0204281. [PMID: 30235307 PMCID: PMC6147516 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0204281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2018] [Accepted: 09/04/2018] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
The risk of classical scrapie transmission in small ruminants is highest during the neonatal period with the placenta recognized as a significant source of infection. Milk has also been identified as a source of scrapie with sheep-to-sheep transmission occurring after neonatal consumption of as little as 1-2 liters of milk; concurrent mastitis due to small ruminant lentivirus (SRLV) infection may be associated with increased scrapie transmission via milk in sheep. In contrast, goat-to-sheep transmission has been documented only after prolonged consumption of >30 liters of milk. The goal of the current study was to assess transmission of scrapie to goat kids and lambs following low volume, short duration consumption of milk from infected goats. Milk from two does (female goats) with pre-clinical scrapie was fed to four goat kids (≤4.5 L each) and four lambs (~3.7 L each) beginning ~24 hours after birth. Scrapie transmission was detected in three sheep as early as 18 months post inoculation; transmission was also detected in two goats but not until postmortem analyses at 33 months post inoculation. Each milk donor goat also had naturally-acquired infection with SRLV. Different degrees of lymphohistiocytic inflammation and PrPSc accumulation were observed in mammary gland tissues of the donors, which appeared to associate with transmission of scrapie via milk. Thus, similar to the risks of milk transmission of scrapie from sheep, even limited exposure to milk from goats can pose significant risk for scrapie transmission to both goat kids and lambs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sally A. Madsen-Bouterse
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, United States of America
| | - Margaret A. Highland
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, United States of America
- Animal Disease Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Pullman, Washington, United States of America
- Washington Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, United States of America
- Paul G. Allen School for Global Animal Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, United States of America
| | - Rohana P. Dassanayake
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, United States of America
| | - Dongyue Zhuang
- Animal Disease Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Pullman, Washington, United States of America
| | - David A. Schneider
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, United States of America
- Animal Disease Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Pullman, Washington, United States of America
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Konold T, Phelan LJ, Donnachie BR, Chaplin MJ, Cawthraw S, González L. Codon 141 polymorphisms of the ovine prion protein gene affect the phenotype of classical scrapie transmitted from goats to sheep. BMC Vet Res 2017; 13:122. [PMID: 28472956 PMCID: PMC5418773 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-017-1036-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2016] [Accepted: 04/21/2017] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Background A study to investigate transmission of classical scrapie via goat milk was carried out in sheep: firstly, lambs were challenged orally with goat scrapie brain homogenate to confirm transmission of scrapie from goats to sheep. In the second study phase, milk from scrapie-infected goats was fed to lambs. Lambs were selected according to their prion protein gene (PRNP) genotype, which was either VRQ/VRQ or ARQ/ARQ, with or without additional polymorphisms at codon 141 (FF141, LF141 or LL141) of the ovine PRNP. This report describes the clinical, pathological and molecular phenotype of goat scrapie in those sheep that progressed to clinical end-stage. Results Ten sheep (six VRQ/VRQ and four ARQ/ARQ, of which three FF141 and one LL141) challenged with one of two scrapie brain homogenates, and six pairs of sheep (ARQ, of which five LL141 and seven LF141) fed milk from six different goats, developed clinical disease, which was characterised by a pruritic (all VRQ/VRQ and LL141 sheep) or a non-pruritic form (all LF141 and FF141 sheep). Immunohistochemical (IHC) examination revealed that the pattern of intra- and extracellular accumulation of disease-associated prion protein in the brain was also dependent on PRNP polymorphisms at codon 141, which was similar in VRQ and LL141 sheep but different from LF141 and FF141 sheep. The influence of codon 141 was also seen in discriminatory Western blot (WB), with LF141 and FF141 sheep showing a bovine spongiform encephalopathy-like profile (diminished reactivity with P4 antibody) on brain tissue. However, discriminatory WB in lymphoid tissues, and IHC pattern and profile both in lymphoid and brain tissue was consistent with classical scrapie in all sheep. Conclusions This study provided further evidence that the clinical presentation and the pathological and molecular phenotypes of scrapie in sheep are influenced by PRNP polymorphisms, particularly at codon 141. Differences in the truncation of disease-associated prion protein between LL141 sheep and those carrying the F141 allele may be responsible for these observations. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12917-017-1036-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timm Konold
- Animal Sciences Unit, Animal and Plant Health Agency Weybridge, Addlestone, UK.
| | - Laura J Phelan
- Animal Sciences Unit, Animal and Plant Health Agency Weybridge, Addlestone, UK
| | - Ben R Donnachie
- Pathology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency Weybridge, Addlestone, UK
| | - Melanie J Chaplin
- Pathology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency Weybridge, Addlestone, UK
| | - Saira Cawthraw
- Central Sequencing Unit, Animal and Plant Health Agency Weybridge, Addlestone, UK
| | - Lorenzo González
- Pathology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency Lasswade, Penicuik, UK
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8
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Konold T, Thorne L, Simmons HA, Hawkins SAC, Simmons MM, González L. Evidence of scrapie transmission to sheep via goat milk. BMC Vet Res 2016; 12:208. [PMID: 27640200 PMCID: PMC5027119 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-016-0807-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2016] [Accepted: 08/19/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Previous studies confirmed that classical scrapie can be transmitted via milk in sheep. The current study aimed to investigate whether scrapie can also be transmitted via goat milk using in vivo (new-born lambs fed milk from scrapie-affected goats due to the unavailability of goat kids from guaranteed scrapie-free herds) and in vitro methods (serial protein misfolding cyclic amplification [sPMCA] on milk samples). Results In an initial pilot study, new-born lambs of two different prion protein gene (PRNP) genotypes (six VRQ/VRQ and five ARQ/ARQ) were orally challenged with 5 g brain homogenate from two scrapie-affected goats to determine susceptibility of sheep to goat scrapie. All sheep challenged with goat scrapie brain became infected based on the immunohistochemical detection of disease-associated PrP (PrPsc) in lymphoid tissue, with an ARQ/ARQ sheep being the first to succumb. Subsequent feeding of milk to eight pairs of new-born ARQ/ARQ lambs, with each pair receiving milk from a different scrapie-affected goat, resulted in scrapie in the six pairs that received the largest volume of milk (38–87 litres per lamb), whereas two pairs fed 8–9 litres per lamb, and an environmental control group raised on sheep milk from healthy ewes, did not show evidence of infection when culled at up to 1882 days of age. Infection in those 12 milk recipients occurred regardless of the clinical status, PrPsc distribution, caprine arthritis-encephalitis virus infection status and PRNP polymorphisms at codon 142 (II or IM) of the donor goats, but survival time was influenced by PRNP polymorphisms at codon 141. Serial PMCA applied to a total of 32 milk samples (four each from the eight donor goats collected throughout lactation) detected PrPsc in one sample each from two goats. Conclusions The scrapie agent was present in the milk from infected goats and was able to transmit to susceptible species even at early preclinical stage of infection, when PrPsc was undetectable in the brain of the donor goats. Serial PMCA as a PrPsc detection method to assess the risk of scrapie transmission via milk in goats proved inefficient compared to the bioassay. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12917-016-0807-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timm Konold
- Animal Sciences Unit, Animal and Plant Health Agency Weybridge, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK.
| | - Leigh Thorne
- Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency Weybridge, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Hugh A Simmons
- Animal Sciences Unit, Animal and Plant Health Agency Weybridge, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Steve A C Hawkins
- Pathology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency Weybridge, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Marion M Simmons
- Pathology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency Weybridge, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Lorenzo González
- Pathology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency Lasswade, Pentlands Science Park, Bush Loan, Penicuik, Midlothian, EH26 0PZ, UK
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9
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Imamura M, Miyazawa K, Iwamaru Y, Matsuura Y, Yokoyama T, Okada H. Identification of the first case of atypical scrapie in Japan. J Vet Med Sci 2016; 78:1915-1919. [PMID: 27616556 PMCID: PMC5240776 DOI: 10.1292/jvms.16-0379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
A Corriedale ewe was confirmed as the first atypical scrapie case during an active surveillance program for transmissible spongiform encephalopathies in small ruminants in Japan. The animal was homozygous for the AF141RQ haplotype of PRNP. The animal showed clinical neurological signs possibly due to listeriosis before culling. Western blot analysis showed an unusual multiple banded pattern with a low-molecular fragment at ~7 kDa. Histopathology revealed suppurative meningoencephalitis caused by listeriosis in the brainstem. Fine granular to globular immunostaining of disease-associated prion proteins was mainly detected in the neuropil of the spinal tract of the trigeminal nerve and in the white matter of the spinocerebellar tract. Based on these results, this case was conclusively diagnosed as atypical scrapie with encephalitic listeriosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Morikazu Imamura
- National Institute of Animal Health, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization (NARO), Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0856, Japan
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10
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Madsen-Bouterse SA, Schneider DA, Zhuang D, Dassanayake RP, Balachandran A, Mitchell GB, O'Rourke KI. Primary transmission of chronic wasting disease versus scrapie prions from small ruminants to transgenic mice expressing ovine or cervid prion protein. J Gen Virol 2016; 97:2451-2460. [PMID: 27393736 PMCID: PMC5042132 DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.000539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2016] [Accepted: 07/06/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Development of mice expressing either ovine (Tg338) or cervid (TgElk) prion protein (PrP) have aided in characterization of scrapie and chronic wasting disease (CWD), respectively. Experimental inoculation of sheep with CWD prions has demonstrated the potential for interspecies transmission but, infection with CWD versus classical scrapie prions may be difficult to differentiate using validated diagnostic platforms. In this study, mouse bioassay in Tg338 and TgElk was utilized to evaluate transmission of CWD versus scrapie prions from small ruminants. Mice (≥5 per homogenate) were inoculated with brain homogenates from clinically affected sheep or goats with naturally acquired classical scrapie, white-tailed deer with naturally acquired CWD (WTD-CWD) or sheep with experimentally acquired CWD derived from elk (sheep-passaged-CWD). Survival time (time to clinical disease) and attack rates (brain accumulation of protease resistant PrP, PrPres) were determined. Inoculation with classical scrapie prions resulted in clinical disease and 100 % attack rates in Tg338, but no clinical disease at endpoint (>300 days post-inoculation, p.i.) and low attack rates (6.8 %) in TgElk. Inoculation with WTD-CWD prions yielded no clinical disease or brain PrPres accumulation in Tg338 at endpoint (>500 days p.i.), but rapid onset of clinical disease (~121 days p.i.) and 100 % attack rate in TgElk. Sheep-passaged-CWD resulted in transmission to both mouse lines with 100 % attack rates at endpoint in Tg338 and an attack rate of ~73 % in TgElk with some culled due to clinical disease. These primary transmission observations demonstrate the potential of bioassay in Tg338 and TgElk to help differentiate possible infection with CWD versus classical scrapie prions in sheep and goats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sally A. Madsen-Bouterse
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164-7040, USA
| | - David A. Schneider
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164-7040, USA
- Animal Disease Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, US Department of Agriculture, Pullman, WA 99164-6630, USA
| | - Dongyue Zhuang
- Animal Disease Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, US Department of Agriculture, Pullman, WA 99164-6630, USA
| | - Rohana P. Dassanayake
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164-7040, USA
| | - Aru Balachandran
- National and OIE Reference Laboratory for Scrapie and CWD, Canadian Food Inspection, Agency, Ottawa Laboratory–Fallowfield, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Gordon B. Mitchell
- National and OIE Reference Laboratory for Scrapie and CWD, Canadian Food Inspection, Agency, Ottawa Laboratory–Fallowfield, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Katherine I. O'Rourke
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164-7040, USA
- Animal Disease Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, US Department of Agriculture, Pullman, WA 99164-6630, USA
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11
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Konold T, Phelan LJ, Cawthraw S, Simmons MM, Chaplin MJ, González L. Abnormalities in Brainstem Auditory Evoked Potentials in Sheep with Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies and Lack of a Clear Pathological Relationship. Front Vet Sci 2016; 3:60. [PMID: 27532040 PMCID: PMC4969942 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2016.00060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2016] [Accepted: 07/14/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Scrapie is transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (TSE), which causes neurological signs in sheep, but confirmatory diagnosis is usually made postmortem on examination of the brain for TSE-associated markers like vacuolar changes and disease-associated prion protein (PrP(Sc)). The objective of this study was to evaluate whether testing of brainstem auditory evoked potentials (BAEPs) at two different sound levels could aid in the clinical diagnosis of TSEs in sheep naturally or experimentally infected with different TSE strains [classical and atypical scrapie and bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE)] and whether any BAEP abnormalities were associated with TSE-associated markers in the auditory pathways. BAEPs were recorded from 141 clinically healthy sheep of different breeds and ages that tested negative for TSEs on postmortem tests to establish a reference range and to allow comparison with 30 sheep clinically affected or exposed to classical scrapie (CS) without disease confirmation (test group 1) and 182 clinically affected sheep with disease confirmation (test group 2). Abnormal BAEPs were found in 7 sheep (23%) of group 1 and 42 sheep (23%) of group 2. The proportion of sheep with abnormalities did not appear to be influenced by TSE strain or PrP(Sc) gene polymorphisms. When the magnitude of TSE-associated markers in the auditory pathways was compared between a subset of 12 sheep with and 12 sheep without BAEP abnormalities in group 2, no significant differences in the total PrP(Sc) or vacuolation scores in the auditory pathways could be found. However, the data suggested that there was a difference in the PrP(Sc) scores depending on the TSE strain because PrP(Sc) scores were significantly higher in sheep with BAEP abnormalities infected with classical and L-type BSE, but not with CS. The results indicated that BAEPs may be abnormal in sheep infected with TSEs but the test is not specific for TSEs and that neither vacuolation nor PrP(Sc) accumulation appears to be responsible for the clinical abnormalities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timm Konold
- Animal Sciences Unit, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Weybridge, Addlestone, UK
| | - Laura J. Phelan
- Animal Sciences Unit, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Weybridge, Addlestone, UK
| | - Saira Cawthraw
- Central Sequencing Unit, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Weybridge, Addlestone, UK
| | - Marion M. Simmons
- Pathology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Weybridge, Addlestone, UK
| | - Melanie J. Chaplin
- Pathology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Weybridge, Addlestone, UK
| | - Lorenzo González
- Pathology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Lasswade, Penicuik, UK
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12
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Abstract
Paresis and paralysis are uncommon problems in sheep but are likely to prompt farmers to seek veterinary advice. A thorough and logical approach can aid in determining the cause of the problem and highlighting the benefit of veterinary involvement. While this may not necessarily alter the prognosis for an individual animal, it can help in formulating preventive measures and avoid the costs – both in economic and in welfare terms – of misdirected treatment. Distinguishing between central and peripheral lesions is most important, as the relative prognoses are markedly different, and this can often be achieved with minimal equipment. This article describes an approach to performing a neurological examination of the ovine trunk and limbs, the ancillary tests available and the common and important causes of paresis and paralysis in sheep.
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13
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Konold T, Hawkins SAC, Thurston LC, Maddison BC, Gough KC, Duarte A, Simmons HA. Objects in Contact with Classical Scrapie Sheep Act as a Reservoir for Scrapie Transmission. Front Vet Sci 2015; 2:32. [PMID: 26664961 PMCID: PMC4672192 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2015.00032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2015] [Accepted: 08/24/2015] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Classical scrapie is an environmentally transmissible prion disease of sheep and goats. Prions can persist and remain potentially infectious in the environment for many years and thus pose a risk of infecting animals after re-stocking. In vitro studies using serial protein misfolding cyclic amplification (sPMCA) have suggested that objects on a scrapie-affected sheep farm could contribute to disease transmission. This in vivo study aimed to determine the role of field furniture (water troughs, feeding troughs, fencing, and other objects that sheep may rub against) used by a scrapie-infected sheep flock as a vector for disease transmission to scrapie-free lambs with the prion protein genotype VRQ/VRQ, which is associated with high susceptibility to classical scrapie. When the field furniture was placed in clean accommodation, sheep became infected when exposed to either a water trough (four out of five) or to objects used for rubbing (four out of seven). This field furniture had been used by the scrapie-infected flock 8 weeks earlier and had previously been shown to harbor scrapie prions by sPMCA. Sheep also became infected (20 out of 23) through exposure to contaminated field furniture placed within pasture not used by scrapie-infected sheep for 40 months, even though swabs from this furniture tested negative by PMCA. This infection rate decreased (1 out of 12) on the same paddock after replacement with clean field furniture. Twelve grazing sheep exposed to field furniture not in contact with scrapie-infected sheep for 18 months remained scrapie free. The findings of this study highlight the role of field furniture used by scrapie-infected sheep to act as a reservoir for disease re-introduction although infectivity declines considerably if the field furniture has not been in contact with scrapie-infected sheep for several months. PMCA may not be as sensitive as VRQ/VRQ sheep to test for environmental contamination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timm Konold
- Animal Sciences Unit, Animal and Plant Health Agency Weybridge , Addlestone , UK
| | - Stephen A C Hawkins
- Pathology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency Weybridge , Addlestone , UK
| | - Lisa C Thurston
- Surveillance and Laboratory Services, Animal and Plant Health Agency Penrith , Penrith , UK
| | - Ben C Maddison
- ADAS UK, School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham , Sutton Bonington , UK
| | - Kevin C Gough
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham , Sutton Bonington , UK
| | - Anthony Duarte
- Animal Sciences Unit, Animal and Plant Health Agency Weybridge , Addlestone , UK
| | - Hugh A Simmons
- Animal Sciences Unit, Animal and Plant Health Agency Weybridge , Addlestone , UK
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14
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Konold T, Phelan L. Clinical examination protocol for the detection of scrapie. Vet Rec 2014; 174:257. [DOI: 10.1136/vr.g1971] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Timm Konold
- AHVLA - Weybridge; New Haw Addlestone Surrey KT15 3NB
| | - Laura Phelan
- AHVLA - Weybridge; New Haw Addlestone Surrey KT15 3NB
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