Endothelial dysfunction: comparative evaluation of ultrasound dopplerography, laser dopplerflowmetry and direct monitoring of arterial pressure for conducting pharmacological tests in rats

Sex Differences Define the Vulnerability to Atherosclerosis

For several decades, atherosclerosis has attracted the attention of researchers around the world. Even being a major cause of serious cardiovascular disease and events, atherosclerosis is still not fully understood. Despite the fact that the main players in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis are well known, many mechanisms of their implementation and interactions remain unknown. The same can be said about the risk factors for atherosclerosis. Many of them are known, but exactly how they work remains to be seen. The main objective of this review is to summarize the latest data on sex as a biological variable in atherosclerosis in humans and animals; to determine what we do not still know about how sex affects the process of growth and complications of atherosclerosis. In this review, we summarized data on sex differences at 3 atherosclerotic aspects: inflammation, vascular remodeling, and plaque morphology. With all overviewed data, we came to the conclusion on the atheroprotective role of female sex.

Diagnostics of atherosclerosis: Overview of the existing methods

Atherosclerosis was and remains an extremely common and serious health problem. Since the elderly are most at risk of cardiovascular risk, and the average life expectancy is increasing, the spread of atherosclerosis and its consequences increases as well. One of the features of atherosclerosis is its asymptomaticity. This factor makes it difficult to make a timely diagnosis. This entails the lack of timely treatment and even prevention. To date, in the arsenal of physicians, there is only a limited set of methods to suspect and fully diagnose atherosclerosis. In this review, we have tried to briefly describe the most common and effective methods for diagnosing atherosclerosis.

Endothelial dysfunction: developmental mechanisms and therapeutic strategies

Introduction: Every year the importance of the normal functioning of the endothelial layer of the vascular wall in maintaining the health of the body becomes more and more obvious.

The physiological role of the endothelium: The endothelium is a metabolically active organ actively involved in the regulation of hemostasis, modulation of inflammation, maintenance of hemovascular homeostasis, regulation of angiogenesis, vascular tone, and permeability.

Risk factors for the development of endothelial dysfunction: Currently, insufficient bioavailability of nitric oxide is considered the most significant risk factor for endothelial dysfunction.

Mechanisms of development of endothelial dysfunction: The genesis of endothelial dysfunction is a multifactorial process. Among various complex mechanisms, this review examines oxidative stress, inflammation, hyperglycemia, vitamin D deficiency, dyslipidemia, excess visceral fat, hyperhomocysteinemia, hyperuricemia, as well as primary genetic defect of endotheliocytes, as the most common causes in the population underlying the development of endothelial dysfunction.

Markers of endothelial dysfunction in various diseases: This article discusses the main biomarkers of endothelial dysfunction currently used, as well as promising biomarkers in the future for laboratory diagnosis of this pathology.

Therapeutic strategies: Therapeutic approaches to the endothelium in order to prevent or reduce a degree of damage to the vascular wall are briefly described.

Conclusion: Endothelial dysfunction is a typical pathological process involved in the pathogenesis of many diseases. Thus, pharmacological agents with endothelioprotective properties can provide more therapeutic benefits than a drug without such an effect.

Effect of Glucose Levels on Cardiovascular Risk

Cardiovascular diseases remain the leading cause of death and disability. The development of cardiovascular diseases is traditionally associated with various risk factors, most of which are somehow related to an unhealthy lifestyle (smoking, obesity, lack of physical activity, etc.). There are also risk factors associated with genetic predisposition, as well as the presence of concomitant diseases, especially chronic ones. One of the most striking examples is, of course, type 2 diabetes. This metabolic disorder is associated with impaired carbohydrate metabolism. The main clinical manifestation of type 2 diabetes is elevated blood glucose levels. The link between diabetes and CVD is well known, so it is logical to assume that elevated glucose levels may be important, to some extent, in the context of heart and vascular disease. In this review, we tried to summarize data on the possible role of blood glucose as a risk factor for the development of CVD.

From Diabetes to Atherosclerosis: Potential of Metformin for Management of Cardiovascular Disease

Atherosclerosis is a common cause of cardiovascular disease, which, in turn, is often fatal. Today, we know a lot about the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. However, the main knowledge is that the disease is extremely complicated. The development of atherosclerosis is associated with more than one molecular mechanism, each making a significant contribution. These mechanisms include endothelial dysfunction, inflammation, mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, and lipid metabolism disorders. This complexity inevitably leads to difficulties in treatment and prevention. One of the possible therapeutic options for atherosclerosis and its consequences may be metformin, which has already proven itself in the treatment of diabetes. Both diabetes and atherosclerosis are complex metabolic diseases, the pathogenesis of which involves many different mechanisms, including those common to both diseases. This makes metformin a suitable candidate for investigating its efficacy in cardiovascular disease. In this review, we highlight aspects such as the mechanisms of action and targets of metformin, in addition to summarizing the available data from clinical trials on the effective reduction of cardiovascular risks.

Atherosclerosis Specific Features in Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD)

Atherosclerosis is the major cause of cardiovascular disease, leading to a high mortality rate worldwide. Several risk factors are known to favor atherogenesis, among which are high blood pressure, smoking, diabetes mellitus, and others. Chronic kidney disease is another serious health problem associated with significant health care costs, morbidity, and mortality. Chronic kidney disease shares several risk factors with atherosclerosis and cardiovascular diseases, such as hypertension and diabetes mellitus. Additional risk factors for cardiovascular disease development should be considered in patients with chronic kidney disease. Interestingly, patients suffering from chronic kidney disease are more prone to cardiovascular problems than the general population. Moreover, chronic kidney disease is characterized by an increased atherosclerotic burden from the very early stages. The purpose of this review was to summarize data on atherosclerosis in chronic kidney disease, highlighting the specific features of the disease combination.

The Role of Mitochondrial Abnormalities in Diabetic Cardiomyopathy

Diabetic cardiomyopathy (DCM) is defined as the presence in diabetic patients of abnormal cardiac structure and performance (such as left ventricular hypertrophy, fibrosis, and arrhythmia) in the absence of other cardiac risk factors (such as hypertension or coronary artery disease). Although the pathogenesis of DCM remains unclear currently, mitochondrial structural and functional dysfunctions are recognised as a central player in the DCM development. In this review, we focus on the role of mitochondrial dynamics, biogenesis and mitophagy, Ca²⁺ metabolism and bioenergetics in the DCM development and progression. Based on the crucial role of mitochondria in DCM, application of mitochondria-targeting therapies could be effective strategies to slow down the progression of the disease.

Effects of Metabolic Disorders in Immune Cells and Synoviocytes on the Development of Rheumatoid Arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a progressive autoimmune disease that affects the joints. It has been proven that, with the development of RA, there are changes in the metabolism of cells located in the focus of inflammation. In this article, we describe the connection between metabolism and inflammation in the context of rheumatoid arthritis. We consider in detail the changes in metabolic processes and their subsequent immunomodulatory effects. In particular, we consider how changes in mitochondrial functioning lead to the modulation of metabolism in rheumatoid arthritis. We also describe the main features of the metabolism in cells present in the synovial membrane during inflammation, and we discuss possible targets for the therapy of rheumatoid arthritis.

Aging of Vascular System Is a Complex Process: The Cornerstone Mechanisms

Aging is one of the most intriguing processes of human ontogenesis. It is associated with the development of a wide variety of diseases affecting all organs and their systems. The victory over aging is the most desired goal of scientists; however, it is hardly achievable in the foreseeable future due to the complexity and ambiguity of the process itself. All body systems age, lose their performance, and structural disorders accumulate. The cardiovascular system is no exception. And it is cardiovascular diseases that occupy a leading position as a cause of death, especially among the elderly. The aging of the cardiovascular system is well described from a mechanical point of view. Moreover, it is known that at the cellular level, a huge number of mechanisms are involved in this process, from mitochondrial dysfunction to inflammation. It is on these mechanisms, as well as the potential for taking control of the aging of the cardiovascular system, that we focused on in this review.

Interplay between Zn2+ Homeostasis and Mitochondrial Functions in Cardiovascular Diseases and Heart Ageing

Zinc plays an important role in cardiomyocytes, where it exists in bound and histochemically reactive labile Zn²⁺ forms. Although Zn²⁺ concentration is under tight control through several Zn²⁺-transporters, its concentration and intracellular distribution may vary during normal cardiac function and pathological conditions, when the protein levels and efficacy of Zn²⁺ transporters can lead to zinc re-distribution among organelles in cardiomyocytes. Such dysregulation of cellular Zn²⁺ homeostasis leads to mitochondrial and ER stresses, and interrupts normal ER/mitochondria cross-talk and mitophagy, which subsequently, result in increased ROS production and dysregulated metabolic function. Besides cardiac structural and functional defects, insufficient Zn²⁺ supply was associated with heart development abnormalities, induction and progression of cardiovascular diseases, resulting in accelerated cardiac ageing. In the present review, we summarize the recently identified connections between cellular and mitochondrial Zn²⁺ homeostasis, ER stress and mitophagy in heart development, excitation–contraction coupling, heart failure and ischemia/reperfusion injury. Additionally, we discuss the role of Zn²⁺ in accelerated heart ageing and ageing-associated rise of mitochondrial ROS and cardiomyocyte dysfunction.

Mitochondria-Mediated Cardiovascular Benefits of Sodium-Glucose Co-Transporter 2 Inhibitors

Several recent cardiovascular trials of SGLT 2 (sodium-glucose cotransporter 2) inhibitors revealed that they could reduce adverse cardiovascular events in patients with T2DM (type 2 diabetes mellitus). However, the exact molecular mechanism underlying the beneficial effects that SGLT2 inhibitors have on the cardiovascular system is still unknown. In this review, we focus on the molecular mechanisms of the mitochondria-mediated beneficial effects of SGLT2 inhibitors on the cardiovascular system. The application of SGLT2 inhibitors ameliorates mitochondrial dysfunction, dynamics, bioenergetics, and ion homeostasis and reduces the production of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species, which results in cardioprotective effects. Herein, we present a comprehensive overview of the impact of SGLT2 inhibitors on mitochondria and highlight the potential application of these medications to treat both T2DM and cardiovascular diseases.