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Banks P, Funkhouser EM, Macias AM, Lovett B, Meador S, Hatch A, Garraffo HM, Cartwright KC, Kasson MT, Marek PE, Jones TH, Mevers E. The Chemistry of the Defensive Secretions of Three Species of Millipedes in the Genus Brachycybe. J Chem Ecol 2024:10.1007/s10886-024-01518-6. [PMID: 38853234 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-024-01518-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2024] [Revised: 05/13/2024] [Accepted: 05/22/2024] [Indexed: 06/11/2024]
Abstract
Millipedes have long been known to produce a diverse array of chemical defense agents that deter predation. These compounds, or their precursors, are stored in high concentration within glands (ozadenes) and are released upon disturbance. The subterclass Colobognatha contains four orders of millipedes, all of which are known to produce terpenoid alkaloids-spare the Siphonophorida that produce terpenes. Although these compounds represent some of the most structurally-intriguing millipede-derived natural products, they are the least studied class of millipede defensive secretions. Here, we describe the chemistry of millipede defensive secretions from three species of Brachycybe: Brachycybe producta, Brachycybe petasata, and Brachycybe rosea. Chemical investigations using mass spectrometry-based metabolomics, chemical synthesis, and 2D NMR led to the identification of five alkaloids, three of which are new to the literature. All identified compounds are monoterpene alkaloids with the new compounds representing indolizidine (i.e. hydrogosodesmine) and quinolizidine alkaloids (i.e. homogosodesmine and homo-hydrogosodesmine). The chemical diversity of these compounds tracks the known species phylogeny of this genus, rather than the geographical proximity of the species. The indolizidines and quinolizidines are produced by non-sympatric sister species, B. producta and B. petasata, while deoxybuzonamine is produced by another set of non-sympatric sister species, B. rosea and Brachycybe lecontii. The fidelity between the chemical diversity and phylogeny strongly suggests that millipedes generate these complex defensive agents de novo and begins to provide insights into the evolution of their biochemical pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paige Banks
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA
| | - Emma M Funkhouser
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Military Institute, Lexington, VA, 24450, USA
| | - Angie M Macias
- Division of Plant and Soil Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
| | - Brian Lovett
- Emerging Pests and Pathogens Research Unit, USDA ARS, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Shelby Meador
- Division of Plant and Soil Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
| | - Arden Hatch
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA
| | - H Martin Garraffo
- National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, 20899, USA
| | - Kaitie C Cartwright
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Military Institute, Lexington, VA, 24450, USA
| | - Matt T Kasson
- Division of Plant and Soil Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
| | - Paul E Marek
- Department of Entomology, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA
| | - Tappey H Jones
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Military Institute, Lexington, VA, 24450, USA
| | - Emily Mevers
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA.
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2
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Marek PE, Hall CL, Lee C, Bailey J, Berger MC, Kasson MT, Shear W. A new species of Illacme from southern California (Siphonophorida, Siphonorhinidae). Zookeys 2023; 1167:265-291. [PMID: 37397160 PMCID: PMC10308430 DOI: 10.3897/zookeys.1167.102537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2023] [Accepted: 05/01/2023] [Indexed: 07/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The millipede fauna inhabiting deep soil are poorly known. They are small and threadlike, slow moving, lacking pigmentation, and rarely encountered due to their obscure underground way of life. One family, the Siphonorhinidae, encompasses four genera and 12 species in a fragmentary distribution in California, southern Africa, Madagascar, the Malay Archipelago, and Indo-Burma. The family is represented in the Western Hemisphere by a single genus, Illacme Cook & Loomis, 1928 from California, with its closest known relative, Nematozoniumfilum Verhoeff, 1939, from southern Africa. A new species of this family is documented from soil microhabitats in the Los Angeles metropolitan area, Illacmesocal Marek & Shear, sp. nov. Based on this discovery and the recent documentation of other endogean millipede species, we show that these grossly understudied subterranean fauna represent the next frontier of discovery. However, they are threatened by encroaching human settlement and habitat loss, and conservation of this species and other subterranean fauna is of high importance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul E. Marek
- Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Department of Entomology, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, USAVirginia Polytechnic Institute and State UniversityBlacksburgUnited States of America
| | - Charity L. Hall
- Blacksburg, Virginia 24060, USAUnaffiliatedBlacksburgUnited States of America
| | - Cedric Lee
- University of California, Berkeley, Department of Environmental Science, Policy, and Management, California, 94720, Berkeley, USAUniversity of CaliforniaBerkeleyUnited States of America
| | - James Bailey
- Long Beach, California, 90803, USAUnaffiliatedLong BeachUnited States of America
| | - Matt C. Berger
- West Virginia University, Division of Plant and Soil Sciences, Morgantown, West Virginia, USAWest Virginia UniversityMorgantownUnited States of America
| | - Matt T. Kasson
- West Virginia University, Division of Plant and Soil Sciences, Morgantown, West Virginia, USAWest Virginia UniversityMorgantownUnited States of America
| | - William Shear
- Hampden-Sydney College, Hampden Sydney, Virginia, USAHampden-Sydney CollegeHampden SydneyUnited States of America
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Wesener T. Madagascarhinus, a new genus of the family Siphonorhinidae with two new species from Madagascar (Diplopoda, Siphonophorida). Zootaxa 2023; 5278:163-175. [PMID: 37518290 DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5278.1.9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2023] [Indexed: 08/01/2023]
Abstract
Millipedes of the family Siphonorhinidae Cook, 1895, famous for including the leggiest animal on this planet until recently, with up to 750 legs, show a disjunct distribution in California, South Africa and South-East Asia (from India to the Indonesian Islands of Java and Flores). Here I formally describe the first members of the family from Madagascar, Madagascarhinus madagascariensis n. gen., n. sp. and Madagascarhinus andasibensis n. gen., n. sp., from degraded central highland rainforests. Both species of Madagascarhinus n. gen. are relatively short (61 or 63 tergites), setose, pale and slender, and differ from the other known five genera of the family in numerous characters of the antennae, head, and tergites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Wesener
- Zoological Research Museum Alexander Koenig; Leibniz Institute for the Analysis of Biodiversity Change (LIB); Adenauerallee 127; D-53113 Bonn; Germany.
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4
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Moritz L, Borisova E, Hammel JU, Blanke A, Wesener T. A previously unknown feeding mode in millipedes and the convergence of fluid feeding across arthropods. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2022; 8:eabm0577. [PMID: 35171667 PMCID: PMC8849289 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abm0577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
We report fluid feeding with a sucking pump in the arthropod class Diplopoda, using a combination of synchrotron tomography, histology, electron microscopy, and three-dimensional reconstructions. Within the head of nine species of the enigmatic Colobognatha, we found a pumping chamber, which acts as positive displacement pump and is notably similar to that of insects, showing even fine structural convergences. The sucking pump of these millipedes works together with protractible mouthparts and externally secreted saliva for the acquisition of liquid food. Fluid feeding is one of the great evolutionary innovations of terrestrial arthropods, and our study suggests that it evolved with similar biomechanical solutions convergent across all major arthropod taxa. While fluid-feeding insects are megadiverse today, it remains unclear why other lineages, such as Colobognatha, are comparably species poor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leif Moritz
- Zoological Research Museum Alexander Koenig, Leibniz Institute for the Analysis of Biodiversity Change, Section Myriapoda, Adenauerallee 160, 53113 Bonn, Germany
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology and Animal Ecology, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 1, 53121 Bonn, Germany
- Corresponding author.
| | - Elena Borisova
- Swiss Light Source, Paul Scherrer Institute, Forschungsstrasse 111, 5232 Villigen PSI, Switzerland
| | - Jörg U. Hammel
- Institute of Materials Physics, Helmholtz-Zentrum Hereon, Max-Planck-Str. 1, 21502 Geesthacht, Germany
| | - Alexander Blanke
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology and Animal Ecology, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 1, 53121 Bonn, Germany
| | - Thomas Wesener
- Zoological Research Museum Alexander Koenig, Leibniz Institute for the Analysis of Biodiversity Change, Section Myriapoda, Adenauerallee 160, 53113 Bonn, Germany
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5
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Abstract
The name “millipede” translates to a thousand feet (from mille “thousand” and pes “foot”). However, no millipede has ever been described with more than 750 legs. We discovered a new record-setting species of millipede with 1,306 legs, Eumillipes persephone, from Western Australia. This diminutive animal (0.95 mm wide, 95.7 mm long) has 330 segments, a cone-shaped head with enormous antennae, and a beak for feeding. A distant relative of the previous record holder, Illacme plenipes from California, it belongs to a different order, the Polyzoniida. Discovered 60 m below ground in a drill hole created for mineral exploration, E. persephone possesses troglomorphic features; it lacks eyes and pigmentation, and it has a greatly elongated body—features that stand in stark contrast to its closest surface-dwelling relatives in Australia and all other members of its order. Using phylogenomics, we found that super-elongation (> 180 segments) evolved repeatedly in the millipede class Diplopoda. The striking morphological similarity between E. persephone and I. plenipes is a result of convergent evolution, probably for locomotion in similar soil habitats. Discovered in the resource-rich Goldfields-Esperance region and threatened by encroaching surface mining, documentation of this species and conservation of its habitat are of critical importance.
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Qu Z, Nong W, So WL, Barton-Owen T, Li Y, Leung TCN, Li C, Baril T, Wong AYP, Swale T, Chan TF, Hayward A, Ngai SM, Hui JHL. Millipede genomes reveal unique adaptations during myriapod evolution. PLoS Biol 2020; 18:e3000636. [PMID: 32991578 PMCID: PMC7523956 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3000636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2019] [Accepted: 08/24/2020] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
The Myriapoda, composed of millipedes and centipedes, is a fascinating but poorly understood branch of life, including species with a highly unusual body plan and a range of unique adaptations to their environment. Here, we sequenced and assembled 2 chromosomal-level genomes of the millipedes Helicorthomorpha holstii (assembly size = 182 Mb; shortest scaffold/contig length needed to cover 50% of the genome [N50] = 18.11 Mb mainly on 8 pseudomolecules) and Trigoniulus corallinus (assembly size = 449 Mb, N50 = 26.78 Mb mainly on 17 pseudomolecules). Unique genomic features, patterns of gene regulation, and defence systems in millipedes, not observed in other arthropods, are revealed. Both repeat content and intron size are major contributors to the observed differences in millipede genome size. Tight Hox and the first loose ecdysozoan ParaHox homeobox clusters are identified, and a myriapod-specific genomic rearrangement including Hox3 is also observed. The Argonaute (AGO) proteins for loading small RNAs are duplicated in both millipedes, but unlike in insects, an AGO duplicate has become a pseudogene. Evidence of post-transcriptional modification in small RNAs—including species-specific microRNA arm switching—providing differential gene regulation is also obtained. Millipedes possesses a unique ozadene defensive gland unlike the venomous forcipules found in centipedes. We identify sets of genes associated with the ozadene that play roles in chemical defence as well as antimicrobial activity. Macro-synteny analyses revealed highly conserved genomic blocks between the 2 millipedes and deuterostomes. Collectively, our analyses of millipede genomes reveal that a series of unique adaptations have occurred in this major lineage of arthropod diversity. The 2 high-quality millipede genomes provided here shed new light on the conserved and lineage-specific features of millipedes and centipedes. These findings demonstrate the importance of the consideration of both centipede and millipede genomes—and in particular the reconstruction of the myriapod ancestral situation—for future research to improve understanding of arthropod evolution, and animal evolutionary genomics more widely. Myriapods were among the first arthropods to invade the land over 400 million years ago, and survive today as the herbivorous millipedes and venomous centipedes. This study describes the genome sequences of two millipedes, Helicorthomorpha holstii and Trigoniulus corallinus, revealing unique adaptations not found in other arthropods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhe Qu
- School of Life Sciences, Simon F.S. Li Marine Science Laboratory, State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Wenyan Nong
- School of Life Sciences, Simon F.S. Li Marine Science Laboratory, State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Wai Lok So
- School of Life Sciences, Simon F.S. Li Marine Science Laboratory, State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Tom Barton-Owen
- School of Life Sciences, Simon F.S. Li Marine Science Laboratory, State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Yiqian Li
- School of Life Sciences, Simon F.S. Li Marine Science Laboratory, State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Thomas C. N. Leung
- School of Life Sciences, State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Chade Li
- School of Life Sciences, Simon F.S. Li Marine Science Laboratory, State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Tobias Baril
- Department of Conservation and Ecology, Penryn Campus, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Annette Y. P. Wong
- School of Life Sciences, Simon F.S. Li Marine Science Laboratory, State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Thomas Swale
- Dovetail Genomics, Scotts Valley, California, United States of America
| | - Ting-Fung Chan
- School of Life Sciences, State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Alexander Hayward
- Department of Conservation and Ecology, Penryn Campus, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Sai-Ming Ngai
- School of Life Sciences, State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Jerome H. L. Hui
- School of Life Sciences, Simon F.S. Li Marine Science Laboratory, State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
- * E-mail:
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7
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Siomava N, Fuentes JSM, Diogo R. Deconstructing the long‐standing a priori assumption that serial homology generally involves ancestral similarity followed by anatomical divergence. J Morphol 2020; 281:1110-1132. [DOI: 10.1002/jmor.21236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2020] [Revised: 06/18/2020] [Accepted: 07/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Siomava
- Department of Anatomy Howard University College of Medicine Washington District of Columbia USA
| | | | - Rui Diogo
- Department of Anatomy Howard University College of Medicine Washington District of Columbia USA
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8
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Wong VL, Hennen DA, Macias AM, Brewer MS, Kasson MT, Marek P. Natural history of the social millipede Brachycybe lecontii Wood, 1864. Biodivers Data J 2020; 8:e50770. [PMID: 32296285 PMCID: PMC7148388 DOI: 10.3897/bdj.8.e50770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2020] [Accepted: 03/26/2020] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
The millipede Brachycybe lecontii Wood, 1864 is a fungivorous social millipede known for paternal care of eggs and forming multi-generational aggregations. We investigated the life history, paternal care, chemical defence, feeding and social behaviour of B. lecontii and provided morphological and anatomical descriptions, using light and scanning electron microscopy. Based on observations of B. lecontii from 13 locations throughout its distribution, we report the following natural history aspects. The oviposition period of B. lecontii lasted from mid-April to late June and the incubation period lasted 3-4 weeks. Only males cared for the eggs and subsequent care of juveniles was not observed. In one case, the clutches of two males became combined and they were later cared for by only one of the males. The defensive compound of B. lecontii is stored in large glands occupying a third of the paranotal volume and were observed only in stadia II millipedes and older. We observed B. lecontii feeding on fungi of the order Polyporales and describe a cuticular structure on the tip of the labrum that may relate to fungivory. We found that their stellate-shaped aggregations (pinwheels) do not form in the absence of fungus and suggest the aggregation is associated with feeding. We describe and illustrate a previously undescribed comb-like structure on the tibia and tarsi of the six anterior-most leg-pairs and measure the colour and spectral reflectance of the B. lecontii exoskeleton.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria L Wong
- Department of Entomology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, United States of America Department of Entomology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Blacksburg United States of America
| | - Derek A Hennen
- Department of Entomology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, United States of America Department of Entomology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Blacksburg United States of America
| | - Angie M Macias
- Division of Plant and Soil Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, United States of America Division of Plant and Soil Sciences, West Virginia University Morgantown United States of America
| | - Michael S Brewer
- Department of Biology, East Carolina University, Greenville, United States of America Department of Biology, East Carolina University Greenville United States of America
| | - Matt T Kasson
- Division of Plant and Soil Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, United States of America Division of Plant and Soil Sciences, West Virginia University Morgantown United States of America
| | - Paul Marek
- Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, United States of America Virginia Tech Blacksburg United States of America.,Department of Entomology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, United States of America Department of Entomology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Blacksburg United States of America
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9
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Macias AM, Marek PE, Morrissey EM, Brewer MS, Short DP, Stauder CM, Wickert KL, Berger MC, Metheny AM, Stajich JE, Boyce G, Rio RVM, Panaccione DG, Wong V, Jones TH, Kasson MT. Diversity and function of fungi associated with the fungivorous millipede, Brachycybe lecontii. FUNGAL ECOL 2019; 41:187-197. [PMID: 31871487 PMCID: PMC6927558 DOI: 10.1016/j.funeco.2019.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Fungivorous millipedes (subterclass Colobognatha) likely represent some of the earliest known mycophagous terrestrial arthropods, yet their fungal partners remain elusive. Here we describe relationships between fungi and the fungivorous millipede, Brachycybe lecontii. Their fungal community is surprisingly diverse, including 176 genera, 39 orders, four phyla, and several undescribed species. Of particular interest are twelve genera conserved across wood substrates and millipede clades that comprise the core fungal community of B. lecontii. Wood decay fungi, long speculated to serve as the primary food source for Brachycybe species, were absent from this core assemblage and proved lethal to millipedes in pathogenicity assays while entomopathogenic Hypocreales were more common in the core but had little effect on millipede health. This study represents the first survey of fungal communities associated with any colobognath millipede, and these results offer a glimpse into the complexity of millipede fungal communities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angie M. Macias
- Division of Plant and Soil Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
| | - Paul E. Marek
- Department of Entomology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA
| | - Ember M. Morrissey
- Division of Plant and Soil Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
| | - Michael S. Brewer
- Department of Biology, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC 27858, USA
| | | | - Cameron M. Stauder
- Division of Plant and Soil Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
| | - Kristen L. Wickert
- Division of Plant and Soil Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
| | - Matthew C. Berger
- Division of Plant and Soil Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
| | - Amy M. Metheny
- Division of Plant and Soil Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
| | - Jason E. Stajich
- Department of Microbiology and Plant Pathology and Institute for Integrative Genome Biology, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Greg Boyce
- Division of Plant and Soil Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
| | - Rita V. M. Rio
- Department of Biology, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
| | - Daniel G. Panaccione
- Division of Plant and Soil Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
| | - Victoria Wong
- Department of Entomology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA
| | - Tappey H. Jones
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Military Institute, Lexington, VA, 24450, USA
| | - Matt T. Kasson
- Division of Plant and Soil Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
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10
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Thomson TJ. Three-Legged Locomotion and the Constraints on Limb Number: Why Tripeds Don't Have a Leg to Stand On. Bioessays 2019; 41:e1900061. [PMID: 31531902 DOI: 10.1002/bies.201900061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2019] [Revised: 07/06/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Three-legged animals do not exist today and such an animal is not found in the fossil record. Which constraints operate to result in the lack of a triped phenotype? Consideration of animal locomotion and robotic studies suggests that physical constraints would not prevent a triped from being functional or advantageous. As is reviewed here, the strongest constraint on the evolution of a triped is phylogenetic: namely, the early genetic adoption of a bilaterally symmetrical body plan occurring before the advent of limbs. Presumably, this would greatly constrain any three-legged animal from ever evolving. Tripedalism is employed only by a few animals, but many use a tripod stance while engaged in a variety of activities. Because terms are often used interchangeably in the literature, a standardization of locomotion terminology is proposed. Understanding the constraints behind "forbidden" phenotypes forces us to confront gaps in our evolutionary understanding of which we may be unaware.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tracy J Thomson
- 2119 Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of California-Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
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11
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Shorter PL, Hennen DA, Marek PE. Cryptic diversity in Andrognathuscorticarius Cope, 1869 and description of a new Andrognathus species from New Mexico (Diplopoda, Platydesmida, Andrognathidae). Zookeys 2018:19-41. [PMID: 30283233 PMCID: PMC6168611 DOI: 10.3897/zookeys.786.27631] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2018] [Accepted: 07/28/2018] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Andrognathus is a genus of small, thin-bodied millipedes found in deciduous forests of North America. Poorly understood, these organisms inhabit decaying wood and have morphologically conserved and difficult-to-identify sexual characters that have limited study historically. Recent use of scanning electron microscopy has uncovered variation in male genitalia that was previously unknown in the genus. The distribution of Andrognathus and the extent of this variability across the continent, however, were undocumented, and a wealth of natural history collections remained uncatalogued. Here a new species of Andrognathus is described from New Mexico, Andrognathusgrubbsisp. n., natural history collections are utilized to create a comprehensive map of the genus, and a neotype established for the type species, Andrognathuscorticarius Cope, 1869. Analysis of the cytochrome oxidase I gene (COI) for A.corticarius was completed for the type series and individuals across the species distribution, but little variation was found. Andrognathusgrubbsisp. n. joins A.corticarius and A.hoffmani Shear & Marek, 2009 as the only members of the genus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia L Shorter
- Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Department of Entomology, Price Hall, 170 Drillfield Drive, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Blacksburg United States of America.,Louisiana State University, Department of Entomology & School of Renewable Natural Resources, Life Sciences Building, Forestry Lane, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA Louisiana State University Baton Rouge United States of America
| | - Derek A Hennen
- Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Department of Entomology, Price Hall, 170 Drillfield Drive, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Blacksburg United States of America
| | - Paul E Marek
- Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Department of Entomology, Price Hall, 170 Drillfield Drive, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Blacksburg United States of America
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12
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Marek PE, Krejca JK, Shear WA. A new species of Illacme Cook & Loomis, 1928 from Sequoia National Park, California, with a world catalog of the Siphonorhinidae (Diplopoda, Siphonophorida). Zookeys 2016; 626:1-43. [PMID: 27833431 PMCID: PMC5096369 DOI: 10.3897/zookeys.626.9681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2016] [Accepted: 09/19/2016] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Members of the family Siphonorhinidae Cook, 1895 are thread-like eyeless millipedes that possess an astounding number of legs, including one individual with 750. Due to their cryptic lifestyle, rarity in natural history collections, and sporadic study over the last century, the family has an unclear phylogenetic placement, and intrafamilial relationships remain unknown. Here we report the discovery of a second species of Illacme, a millipede genus notable for possessing the greatest number of legs of any known animal on the planet. Illacme tobinisp. n. is described from a single male collected in a cave in Sequoia National Park, California, USA. After 90 years since the description of Illacme, the species represents a second of the genus in California. Siphonorhinidae now includes Illacme Cook & Loomis, 1928 (two species, USA), Kleruchus Attems, 1938 (one species, Vietnam), Nematozonium Verhoeff, 1939 (one species, South Africa) and Siphonorhinus Pocock, 1894 (eight species, India, Indonesia, Madagascar, Vietnam).
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul E. Marek
- Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Department of Entomology, Price Hall, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
| | - Jean K. Krejca
- Zara Environmental LLC, 1707 W FM 1626, Manchaca, Texas, USA
| | - William A. Shear
- Hampden-Sydney College, Department of Biology, Gilmer Hall, Hampden-Sydney, Virginia, USA
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Shear WA. The chemical defenses of millipedes (diplopoda): Biochemistry, physiology and ecology. BIOCHEM SYST ECOL 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bse.2015.04.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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14
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Sombke A, Ernst A. Structure and distribution of antennal sensilla in Oranmorpha guerinii (Gervais, 1837) (Diplopoda, Polydesmida). ARTHROPOD STRUCTURE & DEVELOPMENT 2014; 43:77-86. [PMID: 24211516 DOI: 10.1016/j.asd.2013.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2013] [Revised: 10/24/2013] [Accepted: 10/29/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Detailed information on sensory organs of Diplopoda especially on antennal sensilla are still sparse and fragmentary. The present study on the antennae of Oranmorpha guerinii (Polydesmida, Paradoxosomatidae) utilizing scanning electron microscopy revealed the presence of six sensillar types: (1) apical cones, (2) sensilla trichodea, (3) sensilla microtrichodea, (4) sensilla chaetica, (5) sensilla basiconica bacilliformia, and (6) sensilla basiconica spiniformia. External structure and distribution of cuticular antennal sensilla are compared with data from other diplopod species. We moreover discuss possible functions of antennal sensilla in millipedes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andy Sombke
- University of Greifswald, Zoological Institute and Museum, Cytology and Evolutionary Biology, 17487 Greifswald, Germany.
| | - Alfred Ernst
- Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena, Institute of Special Zoology and Evolutionary Biology, 07743 Jena, Germany
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15
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Erwin T, Penev L, Stoev P, Georgiev T. Accelerating innovative publishing in taxonomy and systematics: 250 issues of ZooKeys. Zookeys 2012; 251:1-10. [PMID: 23378804 PMCID: PMC3536320 DOI: 10.3897/zookeys.251.4516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2012] [Accepted: 12/17/2012] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Terry Erwin
- Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Lyubomir Penev
- Bulgarian Academy of Sciences & Pensoft Publishers, Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Pavel Stoev
- Bulgarian Academy of Sciences & Pensoft Publishers, Sofia, Bulgaria
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