Public Health Hazard of Zoonotic Campylobacter jejuni Reference to Egyptian Regional and Seasonal Variations

Circulation of thermophilic Campylobacter in pigeons, turkeys, and humans at live bird markets in Egypt

Live bird markets increase the risk of transmission of zoonotic diseases. Few studies have investigated the potential zoonotic transmission of Campylobacter in Egypt. Therefore, our study was carried out to investigate the presence of Campylobacter species, mainly Campylobacter jejuni (C. jejuni) and Campylobacter coli (C. coli), in pigeons and turkeys sold at poultry shops. Furthermore, the study aimed to explore the potential occupational risk of Campylobacter infection, mainly among workers at poultry shops. Six hundred (n = 600) samples from various organs were obtained from pigeons and turkeys from live bird shops in the Giza and Asyut provinces in Egypt. Additionally, 100 stool samples were collected from persons working at poultry shops. Circulation of thermophilic Campylobacter in pigeons, turkeys, and humans was investigated based on culture and molecular methods. The rate of detection of Campylobacter species from the samples was significant when the culture method was used alone in comparison to when it was used in combination with mPCR. The prevalence rates of Campylobacter species detected by mPCR were 36% (C. jejuni 20%; C. coli 16%), 28% (C. jejuni 12%; C. coli16%), and 29% (C. jejuni 15%; C. coli 14%) in pigeons, turkeys, and workers, respectively. In pigeons, significant variations in the C. jejuni and C. coli occurrence rates were reported in terms of the intestinal content (15, 4%), liver (4, 13%), and skin (9, 7%), respectively. In turkeys, Campylobacter species were mostly detected in liver samples with a percentage of 19%, followed by the skin (12%), and the intestinal content (8%). In conclusion, Campylobacter species are circulating in poultry farms in Egypt and could represent a hazard for humans. It is recommended that biosecurity measures should be applied to mitigate the occurrence of Campylobacter in poultry farms. Moreover, there is an urgent need to transform live bird markets into chilled poultry markets.

Characterization of Campylobacter jejuni isolated from dogs and humans using flaA-SVR fragment sequencing in Ismailia, Egypt

INTRODUCTION

Dogs are known as asymptomatic carriers forCampylobacter jejuni. The number of pet dogs is increasing in Egypt in the last decade.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to investigate the frequency ofC. jejuni infection in dogs and humans, molecular typing of associated virulence genes, and flaA-SVR gene using sequencing.

METHODOLOGY

152 unpaired fecal swabs from dogs (n = 72) and humans (80) were examined for the presence of C. jejuni and Campylobacter 23S rRNA, and the pathogenicity genes including mapA genes, virB11, flaA, wlaN, iam, tetO, and aadA genes. Sequencing of the flaA- amplicon was also performed for the representative isolates.

RESULTS

The isolation rate ofC. jejuni was 20.8 % and 31.2 %, respectively in dogs and humans, and all isolates were tested positive for 23S rRNA and mapA genes. C. jejuni harbor virB11 and wlaN (20 %, 0%), iam (10 %, 20 %), tetO and aadA1 (40 %, both), and flaA (40 %, 20 %) in human and dog strains, respectively. The flaA-SVR sequences revealed high identity between human and dog isolates (94.8 %), but revealed 18 substitutions in the amino acid sequence, and showed that the dog and human C. jejuni were close to strains isolated from human and poultry sources.

CONCLUSION

this study demonstrated the comparative sequence analysis ofC. jejuni flaA-SVR fragment in dogs and some Egyptians, which indicated a high identity percentage between them. The results suggest that C. jejuni reservoirs dogs is an alarming public health concern and effective hygienic measures are necessary for house-holding pets to prevent C. jejuni zoonosis in Egypt's community.

Isolation, biotyping and antimicrobial susceptibility of Campylobacter isolates from raw milk in Erbil city, Iraq

This study aimed to determine the prevalence and antimicrobial sensitivity of Campylobacter species in raw milk sold at retail vending in Erbil city. Three hundred and fifty (350) samples were aseptically collected from retail raw milk shops between January and June 2019. For isolation of Campylobacter spp., samples were cultured on selective media and tested for biotype and antimicrobials susceptibility by disk diffusion assay. The overall prevalence of Campylobacter spp. was 12.6%. Campylobacter jejuni was significantly prevalent (65.9%) among other Campylobacter species. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing showed complete sensitivity to tetracycline, rifampicin, and neomycin. On the other hand, total resistance to ampicillin and trimethoprim was observed. Strikingly, as low as 56.8% and 72.7% of isolates are still sensitive to the drugs of choice in campylobacteriosis treatment; ciprofloxacin and erythromycin respectively. This resistance pattern of Campylobacter found in this study is critically alarming owing to the insusceptibility to the aforementioned antibiotics commonly used as the drugs of choice for campylobacteriosis treatment. Increase in Campylobacter prevalence in raw milk was associated with warm season. These levels prevalence and resistance worth further investigations and effective countermeasures owing to potential public health hazards.

Stress resistance associated with multi-host transmission and enhanced biofilm formation at 42 °C among hyper-aerotolerant generalist Campylobacter jejuni

One of the emerging conundrums of Campylobacter food-borne illness is the bacterial ability to survive stressful environmental conditions. We evaluated the heterogeneity among 90 C. jejuni and 21 C. coli isolates from different sources in Egypt with respect to biofilm formation capabilities (under microaerobic and aerobic atmosphere) and resistance to a range of stressors encountered along the food chain (aerobic stress, refrigeration, freeze-thaw, heat, peracetic acid, and osmotic stress). High prevalence (63%) of hyper-aerotolerant (HAT) isolates was observed, exhibiting also a significantly high tolerance to heat, osmotic stress, refrigeration, and freeze-thaw stress, coupled with high biofilm formation ability which was clearly enhanced under aerobic conditions, suggesting a potential link between stress adaptation and biofilm formation. Most HAT multi-stress resistant and strong biofilm producing C. jejuni isolates belonged to host generalist clonal complexes (ST-21, ST-45, ST-48 and ST-206). These findings highlight the potential role of oxidative stress response systems in providing cross-protection (resistance to other multiple stress conditions) and enhancing biofilm formation in Campylobacter and suggest that selective pressures encountered in hostile environments have shaped the epidemiology of C. jejuni in Egypt by selecting the transmission of highly adapted isolates, thus promoting the colonization of multiple host species by important disease-causing lineages.

Prevalence, molecular detection, and virulence gene profiles of Campylobacter species in humans and foods of animal origin

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Campylobacteriosis is one of the most well-characterized bacterial foodborne infections worldwide that arise chiefly due to the consumption of foods of animal origin such as poultry, milk, and their products. The disease is caused by numerous species within the genus Campylobacter, but Campylobacter jejuni is the most commonly isolated species from established cases of human campylobacteriosis. This study was conducted to determine the prevalence and virulence of Campylobacter isolates from human, chicken, and milk and milk products in Egypt.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 1299 samples (547 chicken intestine and liver, 647 milk and milk products, and 105 human stool) were collected and microbiologically investigated, confirmed by multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR) targeting the 23S rRNA, hipO, and glyA genes specific for Campylobacter spp., C. jejuni, and Campylobacter Coli, respectively, followed by virulence genes (Campylobacter adhesion to fibronectin F [cadF] and cdtB) detection using PCR.

RESULTS

About 38.09%, 37.84%, and 8.5% of human stool, chicken, and milk and milk product samples, respectively, were bacteriologically positive, with a total of 302 Campylobacter isolates. All isolates were molecularly confirmed as Campylobacter spp. (100%) where 285 isolates (94.37%) were identified as C. jejuni and 17 isolates (5.62%) as C. coli. Regarding the virulence pattern, all isolates (100%) carried cadF gene while cytolethal distending toxin B gene was definite in 284/302 isolates (94%), concisely, 282/285 (98.94%) C. jejuni isolates, and in 2/17 (11.76%) C. coli isolates.

CONCLUSION

The widespread presence of these highly virulent Campylobacter, especially C. jejuni, proofs the urgent need for the implementation of stringent control, public health, and food protection strategies to protect consumers from this zoonotic pathogen. The availability of information about pathogen virulence will enable enhanced local policy drafting by food safety and public health officials.

Review on Major Food-Borne Zoonotic Bacterial Pathogens

Food-borne microorganisms are major pathogens affecting food safety and cause human illness worldwide as a result of consumption of foodstuff, mainly animal products contaminated with vegetative pathogens or their toxins. Most of these microbes have zoonotic importance resulting in significant impact on both public health and economic sectors. Bacteria are the causative agents of two-thirds of human food-borne diseases worldwide with high burden in developing countries. Hence, the objectives of this review paper are to highlight the background of food-borne bacterial pathogens and to review common major food-borne zoonotic bacterial pathogens. Food animals are the major reservoirs of many food-borne zoonotic bacterial pathogens, and food products of animal origin are the main vehicles of transmission. Meat, dairy products, and eggs are the main ways by which people are exposed to zoonotic bacteria. S. aureus, Salmonella species, Campylobacter species, L. monocytogenes, and E. coli are the major zoonotic bacterial pathogens which are the causative agents of food-borne illness and death in the world associated with consumption of contaminated animal products. Production of toxins and structural virulent factors are responsible for the pathogenesis of these bacteria. These major zoonotic bacteria cause human infections which are characterized mainly by gastrointestinal symptoms including nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal cramps, and other agent-specific symptoms. Some bacteria may cause severe complications. Conventional (culturing), serological, and molecular techniques are important for detection of these common zoonotic bacteria and their toxins in food. Good hygiene, GMP, sanitation in operating procedures, and implementation of standardized HACCP and pasteurization procedures are effective methods for the control and prevention. Currently, the emergence of multidrug-resistant zoonotic bacteria associated with consumption of contaminated animal products is a great concern for the public health, and there should be coordinated surveillance and monitoring system for food-borne zoonotic bacterial pathogens particularly in developing countries including Ethiopia.

Prevalence, seasonality, and antimicrobial resistance of thermotolerant Campylobacter isolated from broiler farms and slaughterhouses in East Algeria

Aim:

The current study was carried out to determine the prevalence, seasonality, and antimicrobial profile of thermotolerant Campylobacter isolated from broiler chickens in Batna, East Algeria, from June 2016 to June 2018.

Materials and Methods:

A total of 960 samples, including 480 cloacal swabs, 240 cecal contents, and 240 neck skin samples collected from 6 poultry farms and 12 slaughterhouses, were included in this study. After isolation and identification, susceptibility to seven antimicrobial agents was tested by the disk diffusion method. The seasonality of Campylobacter infection at broiler farms was statistically analyzed.

Results:

The data showed that 65%, 55%, and 70% of the cloacal swab, neck skin, and cecal content samples were contaminated with thermotolerant Campylobacter strains, respectively (p<0.05). Among the isolated campylobacteria, Campylobacter jejuni was the predominant species (73.5%). Sampling season exhibited a significant impact on the prevalence of Campylobacter (p<0.01), with peak occurrence in summer. All of the isolates were susceptible to gentamicin and resistant to ampicillin and amoxicillin/clavulanic acid, while 83.3% of them were resistant to erythromycin. Interestingly, 16 different resistance profiles were noted, with the combination of “ampicillin, amoxicillin/clavulanic acid, chloramphenicol, erythromycin, and tetracycline” being the most common, identified in 20.7% of isolated strains.

Conclusion:

This study demonstrates the presence of a high contamination rate of multidrug-resistant Campylobacter in farms and slaughterhouses in East Algeria. These findings underscore the need to apply strict control measures to avoid any associated public health hazard among Algerian consumers. This initial finding of the contamination of poultry with this zoonotic pathogen in East Algeria suggests the value of periodic comprehensive evaluation of associated disease in poultry as well as in humans in this region.

Prevalence of Campylobacter and Salmonella in African food animals and meat: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Campylobacter and Salmonella, particularly non-typhoidal Salmonella, are important bacterial enteric pathogens of humans which are often carried asymptomatically in animal reservoirs. Bacterial foodborne infections, including those derived from meat, are associated with illness and death globally but the burden is disproportionately high in Africa. Commercial meat production is increasing and intensifying in many African countries, creating opportunities and threats for food safety.

METHODS

Following Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, we searched six databases for English language studies published through June 2016, that reported Campylobacter or Salmonella carriage or infection prevalence in food animals and contamination prevalence in food animal products from African countries. A random effects meta-analysis and multivariable logistic regression were used to estimate the species-specific prevalence of Salmonella and Campylobacter and assess relationships between sample type and region and the detection or isolation of either pathogen.

RESULTS

Seventy-three studies reporting Campylobacter and 187 studies reporting Salmonella across 27 African countries were represented. Adjusted prevalence calculations estimate Campylobacter detection in 37.7% (95% CI 31.6-44.3) of 11,828 poultry samples; 24.6% (95% CI 18.0-32.7) of 1975 pig samples; 17.8% (95% CI 12.6-24.5) of 2907 goat samples; 12.6% (95% CI 8.4-18.5) of 2382 sheep samples; and 12.3% (95% CI 9.5-15.8) of 6545 cattle samples. Salmonella were detected in 13.9% (95% CI 11.7-16.4) of 25,430 poultry samples; 13.1% (95% CI 9.3-18.3) of 5467 pig samples; 9.3% (95% CI 7.2-12.1) of 2988 camel samples; 5.3% (95% CI 4.0-6.8) of 72,292 cattle samples; 4.8% (95% CI 3.6-6.3) of 11,335 sheep samples; and 3.4% (95% CI 2.2-5.2) of 4904 goat samples. 'External' samples (e.g. hide, feathers) were significantly more likely to be contaminated by both pathogens than 'gut' (e.g. faeces, cloaca) while meat and organs were significantly less likely to be contaminated than gut samples.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrated widespread prevalence of Campylobacter species and Salmonella serovars in African food animals and meat, particularly in samples of poultry and pig origin. Source attribution studies could help ascertain which food animals are contributing to human campylobacteriosis and salmonellosis and direct potential food safety interventions.

Campylobacter at the Human-Food Interface: The African Perspective

The foodborne pathogen Campylobacter is a major cause of human gastroenteritis, accounting for an estimated annual 96 million cases worldwide. Assessment of the true burden of Campylobacter in the African context is handicapped by the under-reporting of diarrhoeal incidents and ineffective monitoring and surveillance programmes of foodborne illnesses, as well as the minimal attention given to Campylobacter as a causative agent of diarrhoea. The present review of the literature highlights the variability in the reported occurrence of Campylobacter in humans and animal food sources across different countries and regions in Africa. Campylobacter infection is particularly prevalent in the paediatric population and has been isolated from farm animals, particularly poultry, and foods of animal origin. The reported prevalence of Campylobacter in children under the age of five years ranges from 2% in Sudan to 21% in South Africa. In poultry, the prevalence ranges from 14.4% in Ghana to 96% in Algeria. This review also highlights the alarming trend of increased Campylobacter resistance to clinically important antimicrobials, such as ciprofloxacin and erythromycin, in humans and food animals in Africa. This review adds to our understanding of the global epidemiology of Campylobacter at the human–food animal interface, with an emphasis from the African perspective. Interinstitutional and intersectoral collaborations, as well as the adoption of the One Health approach, would be useful in bridging the gaps in the epidemiological knowledge of Campylobacter in Africa.

Multilocus Sequence Typing (MLST) of Campylobacter jejuni Isolated From Broiler Meat in Egypt

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Infection with Campylobacter jejuni is one of the most common causes of bacterial gastroenteritis. Infections are mostly acquired due to consumption of raw or undercooked poultry. The aim of this pilot study is to determine the prevalence and the sequence types (STs) distribution of C. jejuni isolated from broiler meat in Egypt.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 190 broiler meat samples were collected from retail chicken shops located at Mansoura, Egypt and examined bacteriologically for the presence of Campylobacter spp. The biochemically identified Campylobacter isolates were confirmed by Multiplex PCR (m-PCR). In addition, multilocus sequencing typing (MLST) was used for genotyping of C. jejuni isolates.

RESULTS

Thirty two Campylobacter isolates divided into C. coli (25 isolates) and C. jejuni (7 isolates) were recovered. Multiplex PCR results found to be 100% in line with biochemical identification. Out of 7 C. jejuni isolates genotyped by MLST, 4 isolates were assigned to ST21, 2 isolates were assigned to ST48 and one isolate was assigned to ST464.

CONCLUSION

This study provides valuable information concerning the prevalence of thermophilic Campylobacter spp. and sequence types distribution of C. jejuni recovered from broiler meat for the first time in Egypt. The identified sequence types from this study were frequently reported in human illnesses. Thus, the present results highlight the importance of the retail broiler meat as a significant source for human Campylobacter infection.

A Comprehensive Review of Common Bacterial, Parasitic and Viral Zoonoses at the Human-Animal Interface in Egypt

Egypt has a unique geographical location connecting the three old-world continents Africa, Asia and Europe. It is the country with the highest population density in the Middle East, Northern Africa and the Mediterranean basin. This review summarizes the prevalence, reservoirs, sources of human infection and control regimes of common bacterial, parasitic and viral zoonoses in animals and humans in Egypt. There is a gap of knowledge conerning the epidemiology of zoonotic diseases at the human-animal interface in different localities in Egypt. Some zoonotic agents are “exotic” for Egypt (e.g., MERS-CoV and Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus), others are endemic (e.g., Brucellosis, Schistosomiasis and Avian influenza). Transboundary transmission of emerging pathogens from and to Egypt occurred via different routes, mainly importation/exportation of apparently healthy animals or migratory birds. Control of the infectious agents and multidrug resistant bacteria in the veterinary sector is on the frontline for infection control in humans. The implementation of control programs significantly decreased the prevalence of some zoonoses, such as schistosomiasis and fascioliasis, in some localities within the country. Sustainable awareness, education and training targeting groups at high risk (veterinarians, farmers, abattoir workers, nurses, etc.) are important to lessen the burden of zoonotic diseases among Egyptians. There is an urgent need for collaborative surveillance and intervention plans for the control of these diseases in Egypt.