Fungal/mycotic diseases of poultry-diagnosis, treatment and control: a review

Interplay of poultry-microbiome interactions - influencing factors and microbes in poultry infections and metabolic disorders

1. The poultry microbiome and its stability at every point in time, either free range or reared under different farming systems, is affected by several environmental and innate factors. The interaction of the poultry birds with their microbiome, as well as several inherent and extraneous factors contribute to the microbiome dynamics. A poor understanding of this could worsen poultry heath and result in disease/metabolic disorders.2. Many diseased states associated with poultry have been linked to dysbiosis state, where the microbiome experiences some perturbation. Dysbiosis itself is too often downplayed; however, it is considered a disease which could lead to more serious conditions in poultry. The management of interconnected factors by conventional and emerging technologies (sequencing, nanotechnology, robotics, 3D mini-guts) could prove to be indispensable in ensuring poultry health and welfare.3. Findings showed that high-throughput technological advancements enhanced scientific insights into emerging trends surrounding the poultry gut microbiome and ecosystem, the dysbiotic condition, and the dynamic roles of intrinsic and exogenous factors in determining poultry health. Yet, a combination of conventional, -omics based and other techniques further enhance characterisation of key poultry microbiome actors, their mechanisms of action, and roles in maintaining gut homoeostasis and health, in a bid to avert metabolic disorders and infections.4. In conclusion, there is an important interplay of innate, environmental, abiotic and biotic factors impacting on poultry gut microbiome homoeostasis, dysbiosis, and overall health. Associated infections and metabolic disorders can result from the interconnected nature of these factors. Emerging concepts (interkingdom or network signalling and neurotransmitter), and future technologies (mini-gut models, cobots) need to include these interactions to ensure accurate control and outcomes.

Hazards Associated with the Combined Application of Fungicides and Poultry Litter in Agricultural Areas

In recent decades, the poultry farming industry has assumed a pivotal role in meeting the global demand for affordable animal proteins. While poultry farming makes a substantial contribution to food security and nutrition, it also presents environmental and public health challenges. The use of poultry litter as fertilizer for agricultural soils raises concerns about the transfer of pathogens and drug-resistant microorganisms from poultry farms to crop production areas. On the other hand, according to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), fungicides represent the second most used chemical group in agricultural practices. In this context, agricultural soils receive the application of both poultry litter as a fertilizer and fungicides used in agricultural production. This practice can result in fungal contamination of the soil and the development of antifungal resistance. This article explores the necessity of monitoring antifungal resistance, particularly in food production areas with co-application of poultry litter and fungicides. It also highlights the role of fungi in ecosystems, decomposition, and mutualistic plant associations. We call for interdisciplinary research to comprehensively understand fungal resistance to fungicides in the environment. This approach seeks to promote sustainability in the realms of human health, agriculture, and the environment, aligning seamlessly with the One Health concept.

Assessment of fungal contamination and biosecurity risk factors in duck-breeding farms in South Korea

Fungi are pathogens that infect all types of poultry and farmers, leading to economic losses in poultry production. Fungi can be isolated from environmental samples and are ubiquitous in the air. This study aimed to evaluate fungal contamination in domestic duck farm environments and analyze biosecurity risk factors associated with fungal infection incidence to assess the vulnerability of the farms to fungal infection. The average fungal concentration was 203 colony-forming units (CFU)/m3 in the air and 365 × 103 CFU/m2 in the wall surface samples. Sixteen fungal genera were recovered from air and wall surface samples from 19 duck-breeding farms, Aspergillus being the most frequently isolated (air: 43.2%; wall surface: 40%). Eleven additional fungal genera (Acrophialophora, Byssochlamys, Fusarium, Lichtheimia, Paecilomyces, Penicillium, Polycephalomyces, Rhizomucor, Scopulariopsis, Talaromyces, and Thermoascus) were isolated from air samples. Also, 8 additional fungal genera (Chaetomium, Lichtheimia, Penicillium, Petriella, Rhizomucor, Rhizopus, Talaromyces, and Trichosporon) were isolated from wall surface samples. The characteristics of the poultry farms (geographic region, stocking density, breeding house type, affiliate, duck age, and season) and fungal concentrations in the air and wall surface samples were analyzed to evaluate the biosecurity risk of the farms. Fungal infections were significantly affected by high stocking density (>2 ducks/m2), duck age (18-25 wk and >60 wk), and high fungal concentration in the wall surface samples (>300 × 103 CFU/m2).

DeepAFP: An effective computational framework for identifying antifungal peptides based on deep learning

Fungal infections have become a significant global health issue, affecting millions worldwide. Antifungal peptides (AFPs) have emerged as a promising alternative to conventional antifungal drugs due to their low toxicity and low propensity for inducing resistance. In this study, we developed a deep learning-based framework called DeepAFP to efficiently identify AFPs. DeepAFP fully leverages and mines composition information, evolutionary information, and physicochemical properties of peptides by employing combined kernels from multiple branches of convolutional neural network with bi-directional long short-term memory layers. In addition, DeepAFP integrates a transfer learning strategy to obtain efficient representations of peptides for improving model performance. DeepAFP demonstrates strong predictive ability on carefully curated datasets, yielding an accuracy of 93.29% and an F1-score of 93.45% on the DeepAFP-Main dataset. The experimental results show that DeepAFP outperforms existing AFP prediction tools, achieving state-of-the-art performance. Finally, we provide a downloadable AFP prediction tool to meet the demands of large-scale prediction and facilitate the usage of our framework by the public or other researchers. Our framework can accurately identify AFPs in a short time without requiring significant human and material resources, and hence can accelerate the development of AFPs as well as contribute to the treatment of fungal infections. Furthermore, our method can provide new perspectives for other biological sequence analysis tasks.

Pathology and Epidemiology of Fungal Infections in Layer Chicken Flocks

Fungal infections have a key effect on the commercial poultry production and welfare. Infections caused by fungi and their food contaminants are zoonotic and influence food safety. Eggs and cooked meats remain major public health concerns. Therefore, this research is aimed at examining the pathology and understanding the epidemiology of fungal infection in layer chicken flocks. The study was carried out on twenty-layer flocks from Kafrelsheikh Governorate, Egypt, from January 2019 to December 2020. In total, 600 samples were collected from 100 healthy and diseased layer chickens from different organs (skin, liver, lung, kidney, spleen, and ovary). In this work, we present the clinical and pathological characteristics of some fungal pathogens (Aspergillus spp. and Fusarium spp.) in layer chicken flocks, as they are responsible for reducing the egg production. In total, 19 fungal strains were isolated from individual chickens, and these were analysed to determine the fungal species. The total proportion of fungal infections at the farm level was (3/20) 15%. The main clinical signs were emaciation and mortalities that reached $4.34\%\pm 0.84$ . We report the first isolation of Aspergillus piperis and Fusarium species from the ovary of poultry, which is the main reason for egg retention and multiple numerous nodules of occasional caseating centers in layer ovaries. The histopathological findings of Aspergillus infection are indicated by the presence of branched hyphae that tend to be numerous and progressive. Furthermore, we found spherules with multiple endospores of Fusarium spp. in the ovaries. Morphological and molecular identification and analysis were performed to confirm the etiological agents.

AFP-MFL: accurate identification of antifungal peptides using multi-view feature learning

Recently, peptide-based drugs have gained unprecedented interest in discovering and developing antifungal drugs due to their high efficacy, broad-spectrum activity, low toxicity and few side effects. However, it is time-consuming and expensive to identify antifungal peptides (AFPs) experimentally. Therefore, computational methods for accurately predicting AFPs are highly required. In this work, we develop AFP-MFL, a novel deep learning model that predicts AFPs only relying on peptide sequences without using any structural information. AFP-MFL first constructs comprehensive feature profiles of AFPs, including contextual semantic information derived from a pre-trained protein language model, evolutionary information, and physicochemical properties. Subsequently, the co-attention mechanism is utilized to integrate contextual semantic information with evolutionary information and physicochemical properties separately. Extensive experiments show that AFP-MFL outperforms state-of-the-art models on four independent test datasets. Furthermore, the SHAP method is employed to explore each feature contribution to the AFPs prediction. Finally, a user-friendly web server of the proposed AFP-MFL is developed and freely accessible at http://inner.wei-group.net/AFPMFL/, which can be considered as a powerful tool for the rapid screening and identification of novel AFPs.

Research progress on the mechanisms underlying poultry immune regulation by plant polysaccharides

With the rapid development of poultry industry and the highly intensive production management, there are an increasing number of stress factors in poultry production. Excessive stress will affect their growth and development, immune function, and induce immunosuppression, susceptibility to a variety of diseases, and even death. In recent years, increasing interest has focused on natural components extracted from plants, among which plant polysaccharides have been highlighted because of their various biological activities. Plant polysaccharides are natural immunomodulators that can promote the growth of immune organs, activate immune cells and the complement system, and release cytokines. As a green feed additive, plant polysaccharides can not only relieve stress and enhance the immunity and disease resistance of poultry, but also regulate the balance of intestinal microorganisms and effectively alleviate all kinds of stress faced by poultry. This paper reviews the immunomodulatory effects and molecular mechanisms of different plant polysaccharides (Atractylodes macrocephala Koidz polysaccharide, Astragalus polysaccharides, Taishan Pinus massoniana pollen polysaccharide, and alfalfa polysaccharide) in poultry. Current research results reveal that plant polysaccharides have potential uses as therapeutic agents for poultry immune abnormalities and related diseases.

Efficacy of common disinfection processes against infective spores (arthroconidia) and mycelia of Microsporum gallinae causing avian dermatophytosis

Background and Aim:

Microsporum gallinae is the major dermatophyte species that causes avian dermatophytosis. Disinfection plays an important role in controlling and preventing dermatophytosis; however, information about the effect of common disinfection processes on M. gallinae is limited. This study aimed to investigate the disinfection efficacy of ultraviolet (UV) irradiation, heat treatment, detergents, and germicides against infective spores (arthroconidia) and vegetative mycelia of M. gallinae.

Materials and Methods:

The minimum inhibitory and minimum fungicidal concentrations of benzalkonium chloride, chlorhexidine, ethanol, formaldehyde, glutaraldehyde, hydrogen peroxide, phenol, povidone-iodine, and sodium hypochlorite germicides against arthroconidia and mycelia of M. gallinae American type culture collection (ATCC) 90749 were determined by broth microdilution. Time-kill assays were used to determine the fungicidal efficacy of moist heat treatment, UV irradiation, commercially available detergents, and germicides.

Results:

There were no significant differences between the arthroconidia and mycelia growth stages of M. gallinae ATCC 90749 in the magnitude of the log₁₀ cell reductions in the number of viable fungal cells induced by the disinfection treatments (all p > 0.05). Moist heat treatment at 40°C did not reduce the number of viable fungal cells at any time (1–60 min); however, treatment at 50°C for 25 min and either 60°C or 80°C for 5 min eliminated > 99.999% of viable fungal cells. Irradiation of fungal cultures with UVC and UVB at doses higher than or equal to 0.4 and 0.8 J/cm², respectively, resulted in a 5-log₁₀ reduction in the number of viable fungal cells, whereas UVA only reduced the number of viable fungal cells by < 2-log₁₀ up to a dose of 1.6 J/cm². All the tested detergents demonstrated minimal fungicidal effects with < 1-log₁₀ reductions in the number of viable fungal cells at concentrations up to 8% w/v. All of the tested germicides eradicated the fungus after treatment for 1 min at 1–1000× minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), except for hydrogen peroxide, which was not fungicidal after treatment for 20 min at 100× MIC.

Conclusion:

Moist heat treatment at temperatures greater than or equal to 50°C, UVC and UVB irradiation at doses higher than or equal to 0.4 and 0.8 J/cm², respectively, and treatment with all tested germicides except hydrogen peroxide can be considered effective processes for disinfecting the fungus M. gallinae from the equipment employed in poultry farming. In contrast, commercially available detergents are not suitable for use as M. gallinae disinfectants.

A global view on fungal infections in humans and animals: opportunistic infections and microsporidioses

After cardiovascular diseases, infectious diseases are the second most common cause of death worldwide. Although these infections are caused mainly by viruses or bacteria, a systematically growing prevalence of human and animal opportunistic fungal infections is noticeable worldwide. More attention is being paid to this problem, especially due to the growing frequency of recalcitrant and recurrent mycoses. The latter are classically divided into superficial, which are the most common type, subcutaneous, and systemic. This work discusses opportunistic fungal pathogens without proven horizontal transmission between different animal species including humans and microsporidia as spore-forming unicellular parasites related to fungi; however, with a yet undetermined taxonomic position. The review also mentions aetiological agents, risk factors, epidemiology, geographical distribution, and finally symptoms characteristic for individual disease entities. This paper provides insight into fungal infections from a global perspective and simultaneously draws attention to emerging pathogens, whose prevalence is continuously increasing. Finally, this work also takes into consideration the correct nomenclature of fungal disease entities and the importance of secondary metabolites in the pathogenesis of fungal infections.

In Vivo Efficacy of Clove Essential Oil Ointment for Microsporum gallinae Avian Dermatophytosis-A Randomized Controlled Trial

Avian favus (dermatophytosis) is a superficial mycosis caused by Microsporum gallinae in poultry. This disease is an important problem in poultry husbandry, but the standard antifungal treatment can leave drug residues in farm products. The aim of this study was to compare the efficacy of a clove essential oil ointment (3%, w/w) with commercially available ketoconazole cream (2%, w/w) for the treatment of M. gallinae infection in chickens. An in vitro time-kill assay showed that clove essential oil ointment reduced the number of viable M. gallinae ATCC 90749 by 99.99% within 1 hr. A randomized controlled trial showed that the therapeutic efficacy of clove essential oil ointment (3%, w/w) was noninferior to ketoconazole cream (2%, w/w) in M. gallinae-infected chickens. The percentage of completely recovered (culture-negative) animals in both treatment groups was 90% in day 35 after initial treatment. This study indicates that clove essential oil is suitable for preparation as an alternative topical treatment for avian dermatophytosis.

Role of clay in detoxification of aflatoxin B1 in growing Japanese quail with reference to gender

The present study investigated the influence of the quail diet polluted with aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) and its detoxification by using clay as a feed additive on the growth performance and some blood biochemical components of growing Japanese quail with reference to sex. A total number of 120 Japanese quail chicks (1 week old), was randomly divided into 10 groups (24 chicks/ group). A 5 × 2 factorial arrangement experiment was performed and included five levels of AFB₁ (0 ppm, 1 mg/kg AFB₁, 1 mg/kg AFB₁ + 1% clay, 2 mg/kg AFB₁ and 2 mg/kg AFB₁ + 1% clay) and two sexes. Birds fed with aflatoxin free diet had significantly (P ≤ 0.05 and 0.01) higher final live body weight, weight gain and lower mortality rate than the other groups. Addition of 1% clay significantly (P ≤ 0.05 and 0.01) improved the growth performance traits and diminished aflatoxin effect when compared to groups without the addition of clay. Obtained results indicated significant (P ≤ 0.05) differences between the two sexes in their response to aflatoxicosis in the final live body weight and weight gain. Our results showed significant (P ≤ 0.01) changes in all blood biochemicals (total protein, albumin, globulin, total cholesterol, creatinine, uric acid) and activities of serum enzymes studied due to the toxicity of AFB₁. Conclusively, the consumption of polluted diets with AFB₁ caused deleterious effects on the growth performance and blood biochemicals components of Japanese quail, while dietary addition of natural clay to the diet of growing Japanese quail caused beneficial effects.

Unexpected Diversity of Yeast Species in Esophageal Mycosis of Waterfowls

This study was performed to evaluate the diversity and prevalence of yeasts associated with esophageal mycosis in domestic ducks and geese. Fungi were isolated from esophageal lesions of dead animals sent for microbiologic laboratory diagnosis. Species identification using a culture-dependent method was carried out by sequencing of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS)1-5.8S rRNA-ITS2 region. The most frequently isolated yeast was Candida albicans (43.1%) followed by Saccharomyces cerevisiae (17.6%), Candida kefyr (11.7%), Kazachstania bovina (11.7%), Candida lambica (3.9%), and single isolates (1.9%) representing Candida inconspicua, Candida rugosa, Candida pelliculosa, Candida krusei, Magnusiomyces capitatus, and Trichosporon asahii. Our results indicate that a number of potentially pathogenic yeast species can be isolated from esophageal mycosis of waterfowls, but additional studies are needed to make conclusions regarding their possible etiologic role in disease.

Differences in fungal contamination of broiler litter between summer and winter fattening periods

This study aimed to compare fungal contamination of poultry litter between warm and cold seasons. It was carried out in commercial production conditions over two five-week fattening periods: one in the summer (July-August) and one in the winter (December-January). Broilers were reared on a litter composed of chopped straw and sawdust. Litter fungal concentration and composition were investigated weekly, along with litter temperature, moisture, and pH. Litter concentration of total fungi increased over both fattening periods, with no differences in median concentrations between them. Season also had no effect on yeast, Aspergillus section Nigri, and Cladosporium, Fusarium, and Rhizopus spp. concentrations, while the Aspergillus section Flavi and Aspergillus spp. combined showed higher concentrations in the summer, and Mucor and Penicillium spp. in the winter. Total fungal concentration highly correlated with litter temperature, moisture, and pH, regardless of the season. Our findings can be useful in the assessment and control of potential harmful effect of fungi on the health of poultry and poultry farm workers.

Effects of Season and House Microclimate on Fungal Flora in Air and Broiler Trachea

Fungi are present in abundance in poultry housing. The aim of the study was to assess the effect of season and microclimate parameters in poultry housing on fungal flora in the air and broiler trachea in commercial fattening conditions. The study was conducted in summer and winter. Study results indicated seasonal impact and association between fungal flora composition in housing air and broiler trachea. However, the total fungal count in housing air was significantly higher in summer and in broiler trachea in winter, both significantly correlated with indoor relative humidity and ammonia concentration. There was no significant correlation between outdoor and indoor air temperature, relative humidity and airflow rate, respectively. Study results suggested that environmental determination of fungi should be accompanied by their determination in broilers. In addition, seasonal impact on fungal contamination should be associated with microclimate conditions in the poultry house rather than the season itself. The fungi detected and the results obtained have implications not only for broiler health but also for the health of humans working in such environments.

E-test Determination of Antifungal Susceptibility of Candida Species Isolated from Turkeys

INTRODUCTION

Candida species are a natural component of the intestinal tract microflora, but in favourable conditions they can cause superficial, mucosal, or even systemic candidiasis. Poultry production might be a source of human drug-resistant yeast infections, including Candida spp. The limited data concerning the antifungal susceptibility of poultry Candida isolates prompted us to carry out research to determine the susceptibility of isolates from turkey intestinal tracts.

METHOD AND MATERIALS

The beak cavity, crop and cloaca were swabbed of 580 turkeys from 58 flocks in western Poland. The susceptibility tests were conducted using the E-test method with amphotericin B, fluconazole, itraconazole, and voriconazole on 52 isolates of C. albicans, C. catenulata, C. glabrata, C. palmioleophila, C. rugosa, C. krusei and C. lusitaniae.

RESULTS

All isolates were susceptible to voriconazole. According to the MIC values obtained for amphotericin B and fluconazole, all Candida spp. isolates were classified as susceptible according to the described breakpoints except for C. krusei, which was the only isolate that was amphotericin B-, fluconazole- and itraconazole-resistant. The susceptibility to itraconazole varied: 11 of the Candida isolates were susceptible (21.1%), 29 were dose-dependently susceptible (55.8%), and 12 isolates were resistant (23.1%).

CONCLUSION

There are few resistant strains of Candida in turkeys, and the drug resistance varies. When Candida passes from turkeys to humans, there is a wide range of antifungal treatment options.

Migratory birds as the potential source for the transmission of Aspergillus and other fungus to Bangladesh

Objectives

Migratory birds play a major role in the transmission of pathogens globally, but still their role in the transmission of fungi in Bangladesh is not known. The present study was carried out for the isolation and molecular detection of fungi including Aspergillus from migratory birds traveling to Bangladesh.

Materials and methods

A total of 50 fecal samples were collected from BaojaniBaor, Magura, and areas close to Jahangirnagar University, Savar. The isolation of fungus was based on culture on Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA), followed by staining, morphology, and molecular detection using polymerase chain reaction (PCR).

Results

Among 50 samples, 40 showed positive for fungal growth on PDA, of which 30 yield only yeast-like colonies, five only molds, and five yielded both yeast and molds. The isolated molds produced various pigmented colonies, namely, black, whitish, grayish, olive green, and yellow. Among 10 molds, six were confirmed as fungi by PCR using genus-specific primers such as ITS1 and ITS4. Later, of these six fungi, five were confirmed as Aspergillus by PCR with primers such as ASAP1 and ASAP2 specific for Aspergillus genus. Therefore, the overall occurrence of Aspergillus was 10% (5/50). PCR specific for Aspergillus fumigatus and Aspergillus niger failed to produce specific PCR amplicon, suggesting that the isolated Aspergillus belongs to other groups.

Conclusion

This is the first report describing the isolation and molecular detection of Aspergillus from fecal samples of migratory birds in Bangladesh. The present findings confirm that migratory birds are potential source for Aspergillus and other fungus in Bangladesh.

Dynamic Interplay of Host and Pathogens in an Avian Whole-Blood Model

Microbial survival in blood is an essential step toward the development of disseminated diseases and blood stream infections. For poultry, however, little is known about the interactions of host cells and pathogens in blood. We established an ex vivo chicken whole-blood infection assay as a tool to analyze interactions between host cells and three model pathogens, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Candida albicans. Following a systems biology approach, we complemented the experimental measurements with functional and quantitative immune characteristics by virtual infection modeling. All three pathogens were killed in whole blood, but each to a different extent and with different kinetics. Monocytes, and to a lesser extent heterophils, associated with pathogens. Both association with host cells and transcriptional activation of genes encoding immune-associated functions differed depending on both the pathogen and the genetic background of the chickens. Our results provide first insights into quantitative interactions of three model pathogens with different immune cell populations in avian blood, demonstrating a broad spectrum of different characteristics during the immune response that depends on the pathogen and the chicken line.

How Safe is Chicken Litter for Land Application as an Organic Fertilizer? A Review

Chicken litter application on land as an organic fertilizer is the cheapest and most environmentally safe method of disposing of the volume generated from the rapidly expanding poultry industry worldwide. However, little is known about the safety of chicken litter for land application and general release into the environment. Bridging this knowledge gap is crucial for maximizing the benefits of chicken litter as an organic fertilizer and mitigating negative impacts on human and environmental health. The key safety concerns of chicken litter are its contamination with pathogens, including bacteria, fungi, helminthes, parasitic protozoa, and viruses; antibiotics and antibiotic-resistant genes; growth hormones such as egg and meat boosters; heavy metals; and pesticides. Despite the paucity of literature about chicken litter safety for land application, the existing information was scattered and disjointed in various sources, thus making them not easily accessible and difficult to interpret. We consolidated scattered pieces of information about known contaminants found in chicken litter that are of potential risk to human, animal, and environmental health and how they are spread. This review tested the hypothesis that in its current form, chicken litter does not meet the minimum standards for application as organic fertilizer. The review entails a meta-analysis of technical reports, conference proceedings, peer-reviewed journal articles, and internet texts. Our findings indicate that direct land application of chicken litter could be harming animal, human, and environmental health. For example, counts of pathogenic strains of Eschericiacoli (10⁵–10¹⁰ CFU g⁻¹) and Coliform bacteria (10⁶–10⁸ CFU g⁻¹) exceeded the maximum permissible limits (MPLs) for land application. In Australia, 100% of broiler litter tested was contaminated with Actinobacillus and re-used broiler litter was more contaminated with Salmonella than non-re-used broiler litter. Similarly, in the US, all (100%) broiler litter was contaminated with Eschericiacoli containing genes resistant to over seven antibiotics, particularly amoxicillin, ceftiofur, tetracycline, and sulfonamide. Chicken litter is also contaminated with a vast array of antibiotics and heavy metals. There are no standards set specifically for chicken litter for most of its known contaminants. Even where standards exist for related products such as compost, there is wide variation across countries and bodies mandated to set standards for safe disposal of organic wastes. More rigorous studies are needed to ascertain the level of contamination in chicken litter from both broilers and layers, especially in developing countries where there is hardly any data; set standards for all the contaminants; and standardize these standards across all agencies, for safe disposal of chicken litter on land.

Fungal infections in animals: a patchwork of different situations

The importance of fungal infections in both human and animals has increased over the last decades. This article represents an overview of the different categories of fungal infections that can be encountered in animals originating from environmental sources without transmission to humans. In addition, the endemic infections with indirect transmission from the environment, the zoophilic fungal pathogens with near-direct transmission, the zoonotic fungi that can be directly transmitted from animals to humans, mycotoxicoses and antifungal resistance in animals will also be discussed. Opportunistic mycoses are responsible for a wide range of diseases from localized infections to fatal disseminated diseases, such as aspergillosis, mucormycosis, candidiasis, cryptococcosis and infections caused by melanized fungi. The amphibian fungal disease chytridiomycosis and the Bat White-nose syndrome are due to obligatory fungal pathogens. Zoonotic agents are naturally transmitted from vertebrate animals to humans and vice versa. The list of zoonotic fungal agents is limited but some species, like Microsporum canis and Sporothrix brasiliensis from cats, have a strong public health impact. Mycotoxins are defined as the chemicals of fungal origin being toxic for warm-blooded vertebrates. Intoxications by aflatoxins and ochratoxins represent a threat for both human and animal health. Resistance to antifungals can occur in different animal species that receive these drugs, although the true epidemiology of resistance in animals is unknown, and options to treat infections caused by resistant infections are limited.

Applicability of the Platelia EIA® Aspergillus test for the diagnosis of aspergilosis in penguins

Even today, an effective diagnostic test for aspergillosis in penguins is unknown, being the gold standard post-mortem examinations. The fungal antigen galactomannan (GM) has been used as a biomarker of disease in humans and is detected by the Platelia Aspergillus EIA (BioRad)®, a commercial kit based on the sandwich ELISA technique. It is standardized for use in neutropenic patients, however studies have demonstrated its usefulness also possible for birds. The aim of our study was to evaluate the effectiveness of Platelia Aspergillus EIA® test (BioRad-US) in the diagnosis of aspergillosis in Magellanic penguins, determining sensitivity, specificity, and positive and negative predictive values for different cut-off points. Were included in the study, blood serum samples (n = 29) Magellanic penguins in captivity that died by aspergillosis. Detection of GM was performed following manufacturer's instructions and the GM index was obtained by dividing the average value of OD of the duplicate of the clinical sample by duplicate OD of the average value of the cut-off sample provided by the kit. Through information database results were obtained for the presence of anti-Aspergillus fumigatus antibodies detected by agar gel immunodiffusion (AGID) for all serum samples. Results were analyzed using chi-square test and Kruskal-Wallis from SPSS 20.0, IBM®. ROC curve was obtained and from this, rates of sensitivity, specificity, positive and negative predictive values were also calculated based on four different cutoff points (0.5, 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0). The serum GM index did not differ between animals of the case and control group (pkw =0.097). In determining the ROC curve for serum GM detection the value of area under the curve was 0.635. From the values ​​determined by the coordinate of the curve, four different cut points (0.5, 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0) were analyzed, resulting in sensitivity rates ranging from 86.2 to 34.5% % and specificity between 87% and 26.1%. By comparing the serum GM index in group case as the presence or absence of antibodies detected by AGID was found p=0.503. The detection of GM the Platelia Aspergillus EIA® test seems is not be useful for the diagnosis of aspergillosis in naturally infected penguins.

Studies on Antimicrobial and Immunomodulatory Effects of Hot Aqueous Extract of Acacia nilotica L. Leaves against Common Veterinary Pathogens

Acacia nilotica is a plant species that is almost ubiquitously found in different parts of the world. Various preparations of it have been advocated in folk medicine for the treatment of tuberculosis, leprosy, smallpox, dysentery, cough, ophthalmia, toothache, skin cancer as astringent, antispasmodic, and aphrodisiac since immemorial times. The present study investigates the antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, and immunomodulatory potential of hot aqueous extract (HAE) of Acacia nilotica leaves. On dry matter basis, the filtered HAE had a good extraction ratio (33.46%) and was found to have carbohydrates, glycosides, phytosterols, phenolic compounds, saponins, and flavonoids as major constituents. HAE produced dose dependent zone of inhibition against Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, E. coli, Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, and Streptococcus uberis and fungal pathogens Aspergillus niger and Aspergillus fumigates; however, no antiviral activity was recorded against IBR virus. HAE of A. nilotica revealed both proliferative and inhibitory effects on the rat splenocytes and IL-10 release depending on the dose. Detailed studies involving wide spectrum of bacterial, fungal, and viral species are required to prove or know the exact status of each constituents of the plant extract.